450 Years of Colonialism . . .
Part 1 - Under the British Rule
| 2 hours of hardwork everyday, six months of long research, with a full time job to do and with an angry wife and three children to look after.- May this hard work be dedicated to ALL brave young men who went to protect their heritage and inspire so many more to rise up and defend our continuity with justice and fairness for ALL within a multi-cultural environment where selfish, lying, two-faced-two-tongued gutless greedy traitors, has no opportunity to play their wicked game of fraud. ( Dont forget Dutch times (see Part 2) and Portugese times (see Part 3). | ||
| 1796 | Third Bitish delegation arrives in Kandy & innocent king falls into the trap by believing their lies and deceit.……….. | Led by Robert Andrews they arrive in good time when King was very unhappy with the Dutch for their desperate attempts to keep monopoly. British offer an outlet for Kandy to obtain salt & fish, and to operate 10 ships. King wants more ports and an assurance that the Dutch areas do not fall into British control. But British really seeks only a resistance of the king that will keep at least some of the Dutch troops tied down enabling the British to beat the Dutch with the least casualties. They also fighten the king about the fall of the monarchs giving French revolution as an example, & shows that only the British can help monarchs around the globe. |
| 1796 | 15 th Feb, 1796, British take Colombo & Lanka from the Dutch without resistance & breaks the promise given to Sinhalese who are faced with the most powerful enemy in the world now. | British Navy advances along the coast to Negombo, & then on foot they cross Kelani river to reach Colombo. They humiliate the Sinhala army from Kandy that came to help by sending them back saying they are not needed. British also send the Sinhala army that took Matara from the Dutch on the 2nd February back within 22 days. The British had used Kandy only to tie the Dutch troops in forts. Thus the joint elements of Briitish East India co. & British Govt. took the entire coastline and the land 20 miles interior. Kandy is faced with the most powerful enemy in the world now. |
| 1796 | The rebellion the British expected take place - British gives what the selfish officials & village chiefs need, & easily suppress the patriotic Sinhalese | Having introduced drastic social and economic reforms, British expects an uprising. Full military power is used against the rebels. Kandyan chiefs, Dutch and French officials secretly support the rebels. Noticing this, British promises to reintroduce the old way of taxes and removes the reforms. The selfish officials are happy with that. This also wins the selfish village chiefs and with their help the British round up the few remaining rebels with ease. |
| 1796 | Dutch and Malay mercenaries | Dutch and Malay mercenaries of Dutch service, are transferred to British East India Co. |
| 1797 | British brings in the "Caste-tactic"- By giving jobs to the two largest casts, British get the Sinhalese majority depended on the British rule. With this Sinhala majority being loyal to the British, Sinhala rebellions will only lead to the massacre of the patriotic Sinhalese. | A committee that was appointed to investigate the cause of the rebellion recommend a strong tactics to curb any future uprising. While continuing with the Village headmen rule, the very first British governer Frederick North himself declare himself of Govigama caste, and a lower civil servant as a Karawe caste. This created the fashion of superior jobs for the Govigama or Vellale and next level of jobs to karawe caste. Sinhalese will continue to believe in this fashion. With these two casts being the majority of the Sinhalese society, the British have the majority Sinhalese depended on the British rule. From here onwards, the Sinhala rebellions will not arise from the Sinhala majority as the majority is loyal to the British. |
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1798 |
Last King of Lanka - 4th Nayakakar king, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe -Selfish 1st Adigar places an unsuitable puppet to the throne, who will destroy the reputation of the 3 previous Good Nayakkar kings. | As good king Rajadi Rajasinghe died of a fever, leaving no heir, selfish Pilimatalawe, the 1st Adigar, who is unpopular among the Kandyans is left with power to recommend one. He looks for a temperary puppet king who will not challenge the power he was gaining in Kandy. He find a 18 year old SL born Nayakkar, Konnasamy, who is a son of a former queen's sister. But his plans to use the new king to his advantage and to oust him once he is popular among the people backfired as the new king took control of the situation himself. |
| 1799 | Selfish Pilimatalawe offers British the country in return for the crown to rule Sinhalese | In a meeting with the governer in 1799 in Avissawella, he forward his offer & is rejected by Frederick North. Instead he sees the potential of using him to take Kandy and offers him to be a deputy king in Kandy surrounded by a British army unit and British officials while the king & the royal court moving to Colombo as nominal leader. But Pilimetalawe insists he want to be the king. |
| 1799 | Deciding not to be a puppet to Pilimatalawe, Sri Wickrama Rajasinghe goes bananas | Sensing the lack of loyalty around him , and plaged by insecurity and plotters and conspirators, He turn a tyrant desperate to wipe out any suspected opponent. Sometimes when he cannot single out a possible threat he would kill hundreds hoping the one he wanted was among them. He confiscates the wealth of the Nobles in punishment for not displaying loyalty. His hideous torture include impaling by draining the blood out. He trusts the lower classes but mistrusts the Kandyan aristocracy who he sees as his opponent. He changes sleeping rooms during the night & changes guards at will to stop timing by any conspirators. He becomes indulgent in alcohol, and fianally become alcoholic due to the tension around him. |
| 1800 | General Macdowall meet the king | King demands right of a port and 10 ships refusing the proposal of British protection to the king. |
| 1801 | British setup schools with longterm plans | British create 170 christian schools to expand it's local support base. |
| 1802 | Lanka is taken over by British Crown | But British India co is given time till 1822 to monopolise on Cinnamon trade. |
| 1802 | All Dutch possessions are handed to British | |
| 1802 | British favours Muslims | British use Muslims to recruit faithful soldiers as they do not trust Sinhala or Tamil people. They allow Muslims to trade , open own schools and mosques. |
| 1802 | Kandyan officials meet the British in Colombo | led by 2nd adigar Migastenne, envoys fail to get those demands from the British. |
| 1802 | Britain agrre to give to Napoleon all British colonies except Ceylon & Trinidad. | Amiens, Treaty of, peace treaty signed on March 27, 1802, between Great Britain on one side and France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic (Napoleon's puppet state in the Netherlands) on the other. This treaty finally ended the War of the Second Coalition, one of the Napoleonic Wars, already partly brought to a close by the Peace of Lunéville in 1801. By the terms of the Treaty of Amiens, Great Britain was to surrender to France and the French allies all British conquests except Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Trinidad. France agreed to evacuate Egypt, Naples, and the Papal States. Among the territories Great Britain was to surrender were the Cape of Good Hope Colony to the Batavian Republic and Malta to the Order of the Knights of Malta. None of the treaty provisions was fully observed, and hostilities resumed in 1803 |
| 1802 | First Two Local army regiments are formed by the British( One with Malays & one with collaborating Sinhalese-"Sepoy") | The Malays formed initially as a Malay Corps and later in 1802 as the 1st Ceylon Regiment under a British Commanding Officer. In the same year, a 'Sinhalese' unit was was raised and called the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the 'Sepoy' corps. |
| 1803 | British launches war on Kandy | Two columns, one led by Major Macdowall from Colombo, second led by Barbut from Trinco, reaches Kandy in 21 days as the king evacuates the city. |
| 1803 | British plans to install two puppet kings ( One for Jaffna, One for Kandy) | British install a puppet king for Lanka - Muttusami - a Nayakkar who fled for British area few years back, who will rule from Jaffna & Kandy kingdom given to Pilimatalawe |
| 1803 | Kandyan Counter-attack after 122 days, British force get annihilated. This is the last Sinhala ARMY victory before the total surrender in 1815. | After the British is plagued with Malaria, the Kandyans attack. First attack is repulsed. But British has too many casualties. They decide to withdraw to Trinco with the able bodied. The withdrawal force get trapped as they cannot cross Mahaveli river that has higher water level due to floods. King demands for Muttusami. British hands him over. He is executed on the spot. On the pretext of escorting them to cross the river, two by two, they are taken away and murdered. Only 4, including Major Macdowall ( who will die a prisoner ) are kept alive as prisoners. Only one of them survive to escape later. |
| 1803 | British resort to farays of destruction into Kandyan territory | British take revenge by releasing army units on raid and destroy missions in to the Kandyan territory. They use both British and local units. This destruction causes famine. |
| 1803 | Sinhala army advances within 15 miles of Colombo & then is routed by British firepower. This is the LAST Major battle of the Sinhala Army before the collapse in 1815.. | King who misunderstood the British failure in the guerilla warfare in Malaria infested rough terrain, remains ignorant to the outside world. He believes he could take colombo with a few captured 6-pound cannons. British let them advance for 30 days before hitting with heavy firepower. Sinhala army captures Hanwella only to lose it the following day. In 2 monthes Sinhala army is routed by firepower. King flees all the way to Kandy as he has no army to stop and fight with. |
| 1803 | Third local regiment under British is formed ( again Malays only) | In 1803 a 3rd Ceylon Regiment was raised with Moluccans and recruits from Penang. All these regiments fought in the Kandyan wars of 1803. More Sinhalese and Malays were recruited to these regiments |
| 1805 | Proof that even at this time majority in Jaffna are Moors, not Tamils. | Capt.Robert Percival of British army in JFN writes that the majority in peninsula are moors who wears a little white round cap on their shaven heads. Next are Malabars, who appear different to the South Indians. 3rd is Sinhalese community in Jaffna. |
| 1805 | Kandyan army takes Katuwana, a frontier town | In a massive attack, British is forced to give up Katuwana. |
| 1807 | Kandy Lake is completed. | Built by Sri Wikrama Rajasinghe, people were forced to offer labour, public and the ministers question the value of a lake which irrigate no land. King keep his harem in an island in the middle of the lake. |
| 1807 | British stop harrassment forays into Kandyan territory to win people | Realising people were alienating from the king as more and more Kandyan chiefs were talking mutiny in secret with the British, the raids are stopped in order to win the people. |
| 1807 | Governer's letter reveals the devious social strategy | January,1807, a letter sent by Governer Maitland to Eden, GA of Matara says, " Use this carefully and secretly, Reliance of Buddhism and philosophy of Matara Buddhists must be destroyed, In Matara, Bikkus are more powerful than village chiefs, Make sure all chiefs are Christians. " |
| 1811 | Pilimatalawe is beheaded for treason in Kandy | King finally kills his no.1 minister for treason. Ehelepola is promoted to 1st Adigar. |
| 1812 | Britsh Govt allows Europeans to receive up to 4000 acres of land | |
| 1814 | The most shocking execution in history of Lanka - Alcoholic bad king murders the family of 1st Adigar who has defected to the British | The expeirenced, hardened executioner faints with horror and disgust for the torture the family of Ehelepola was subjected to. People stay indoors for 2 days in grief and shock. Many nobles take this opportunity to convince people to believe the Britsh are better than the Nayakkar rule. But people neither support the king nor the aristocracy. King is said to be drunk in anger at the time of execution & is said to have regretted later of his cruel orders. |
| 1814 | Fourth local regiment is formed by the British ( using only Africans) | in 1814 a 4th regiment was raised comprising African troops. |
| 1815 | British advance on Kandy saying that they will save Sinhala kandyans from a cruel Malabar ruler | Two divisions reach Kandy in 30 days. Kings Chief Adigar, Molligoda pretend to be loyal to king, but will join the British force once they are in Kandy. |
| 1815 | 14th February , 1915- Kandy fall forever | |
| 1815 | 18th February . 1815- 165th monarch of Lanka is captured | He will die in exile in India in 17 years and his son , childless, in 28 years. |
| 1815 | Kandyan convention is ignored by the frustrated public | British governer Sir Robert Brownrigg & the kandyan chiefs signed the agreement making Molligoda the 1st Adigar, Ehelepola refuses & chooses to retire if he is not made king. He gets a few villages, a bulk sum, all his lands. The frustrated public ignores the ceremony as they dont like or approve any of the parties who sign the treaty. The treaty includes British promises to provide state patronage to look after Buddhism, not to allow Christian Missionary schools to be opened in Kandy( Missionaries campaign to break this promise in 3 years). |
| 1815 | Only one signature in Tamil | All Kandyan chiefs signed in Sinhala, only one signed in Tamil. |
| 1816 | British favours Moors. Sinhalese are angry & helpless | British notices Moors as the mort trusted community to control the masses. They extend special treatment that is not available to others, specially Sinhalese. |
| 1816 | British destroy the irrigation complexes in Uva in scorched- earth tactic. | |
| 1817 | National uprising with imposter Vilbave as new king | Sinhalese in Uva get angry for Moors getting special treatment under the British, rise up in protest. It soon spread to all areas of Kandy as British has no troops and the floods have risen the water levels of rivers. An imposter claiming to be a relative of the good Nayakkars, appears winning the confidence of the people. He is declared new king. |
| 1818 | Keppitipola joins the rebels | Brother-in-law of Ehelepola, sent to crush the rebels changes sides. So does all chiefs except Molligoda. Keppitipola discovers the so called king is an imposter, but decides to settle it once the rebellion is over. British arrests Ehelepola & expels him to Mauritius where he dies in 7 years. Madugalle, chief of Dumbara joins the rebels following Keppitipola. |
| 1818 | First use of propaganda as a tactic in Lanka | British resort to wasteland policy that create starvation in rebel held villages, firepower is used to destroy any thing that helps rebels, and use propaganda for the first time in Lankan history by publisizing that the Dalada is still in British hands and the so called new king is an imposter. |
| 1818 | Dalada is captured by the British | Variyapola Sri Sumangala thero , who went into jungle with the toothrelic from Kandy in April is capured on 28th Nov by British troops based in Nikawella . They find the tooth relic hidden in the robe. Maj.John Davey treats it with respect to win the hearts & minds of Kandy public. |
| 1818 | "We don’t need British troops in Ceylon as long as Moor soldiers are there". British crushes the revolt & admires Moor Soldiers & stops recruitment of Sinhalese to armed services | With reinforcements from India, the revolt ( that has lost popularity) is crushed. Keppitipola is captured on 30th october, Madugalle on 26th November and are executed. British admires Moors for their loyalty in war against Sinhalese. We don’t need British troops in Ceylon as long as Moor soldiers are there says Major Hardy. The Moors get rewarded by British proclamation, placing them under British rule, instead of Kandyan rule even if they reside in Kandy. The recrutiment of Sinhalese is stopped as their loyalty cannot be trusted. |
| 1818 | Missionaries get the British to break the promise of not establishing Missionary schools in Kandy | Though Governer Robert Brownrigg refused permission in 1816 because of the promise in the convention of 1815, the missionaries however persuade the British to allow them to establish missionary schools in kandy. |
| 1818 | Reasons for the rebellion - Shows where the Lankan society is heading……. | Increasing landlessness, negligence of irrigation works that leads to decline of the peasant agriculture effected the self-sufficient Sinhalese tremendously leading to famine & insecurity, village chiefs were not concerned about these problems as they reap the benefits of colonialism, state negligence on the threats to Buddhism, social oppression at the hands of native social class, increasing lawlessness & breakdown in peace & harmony due to opening of taverns, & crimes which started after the arrival of Indian tamils, pressure on Sinhalese peasants to neglect peasant agriculture & work for low wages as slaves in colonial plantation agriculutre. |
| 1819 | British doesn't introduce the injection in the Small-fox epidemic | Though the injection for the small-fox virus was available since 1802, the British does not introduce it to Lanka. Many people die in 2 years. Helpless people leave the patient in a hut in the back yard and many die & become food to animals. |
|
1819 |
16 year old 2nd Lt.Thomas Skinner arrives - One of the great British soldiers who understood the plight the Sinhalese has been subjected to, from the glory to misery. He treats Sinhalese with respect, & spends his money to develop the country. | Accopanying his father who was an officer in the Artillery, He travels from Trinco to Kandy to Colombo and is very impressed by the land and the people. He looks after smallfox patients around his outpost, patients crawl towards his camp, he sends out patrols to collect them, he has a room to lay them & attend to them, He orders them to be given Kenda. Many are cured. He pays his labourers with his own money as the funds granted is not enough to pay them for surveying the Col-Ratnapura road. He also recommends that governers should walk among the locals & should get to know them as much as possible. He delegates a lot of responsibility to his locals and notes that no one ever let him down in honesty, efficiency or trust while many White colleagues have engaged in bad practices. |
| 1819 | British make Lankans alcoholic & Lt.Thomas Skinner of British Army-the first person to try to curb alcoholism in Lanka. The British-sponsored alcohol promotion goes hand in hand with the frustration & the helplessness of the people in an era of hopelessness. | Thomas Skinner repeatedly recommends to his superiors that alcohol must be banned in this country as it destroys this unique culture as many people are begining to rob and lose values. But the British sees it as a way to weaken the people to submission. Licenses are issued to create tavern-owners. They are given permission to give free alcohol in order to attract customers, some areas resist as not even 1% can be lured to alcohols, But within few years, it become a 60,000 sterling pound a year business. The people have two choices to survive. One is to collaborate with the invader & their native ruling class. Second is to become a hostile target of the ruling class & starve. Many Sinhalese who strive to maintain their principles, find it difficult to collaborate. The alcohol promotion goes hand in hand with this frustration & the helplessness of the people in an era of hopelessness. Many addicted villagers even sell their crops, even prematurely, to drink.Thomas Skinner is considered the first to try to curb alcoholism in Lanka. |
| 1819 | British decide to build roads using Rajakariya tactic - They use high caste administrative officials to get the low-caste people to do this. | British realise the need to build roads to transport cannons and troops quickly. They use Rajakariya tactic getting village chiefs to force their workers to work for the colonial masters for nothing. Sinhalese begin to hate these new forms of slavery and the new ways of naming them. Since high castes are involved in administration system, the low-castes end up doing these slavery. |
| 1820 | British Lieutenant discover Polonnaruwa after 700 years & no Sinhala leader is interested ! | A Lt.Fagan of British army, while exploring the jungles & stumbled upon a huge lost city covered in thick grown jungle. He reported this to the superiors & gave correct whereabouts. But no Sinhala social leader will take steps to clear it for another 50 years until the British governer himself orders the Disawe of Thamankaduwa to clear the jungle & excavate the ruins. |
| 1820 | Miracle at Dalada | 8th January, 12 noon, bright streaks of silver rays are projected to sky as far as a human eye could see, from the pinnacle of the temple, observed by all who were in the city of Kandy at the time, recorded very well by a British Army doctor named Dr.John Davey, his account tallys with the recorded versions of chief monk and another surviving document by a Catholic Mudaliyar. All these documentts are preserved in the British archives. |
| 1820 | Anuradapura is discovered by a young British civil servant, Ralph Backhaus | Hidden in massive tropical forest, malaria mosquitos breeding in millions in unused tanks, poor communication & transport facilities, isolation of ill-nourished, disease ridden, decling population around them. But it will take another 70 yrs till excavations are done. |
| 1822 | British India Co. lose Cinnamon trade to it's own Govt | British Govt do not renew contract. So monopoly is taken by the British Govt who reduce export and maintain artificial high prices for more profit. |
| 1822 | British civil servants to learn Sinhala, or Tamil ( gives Tamils 50-50 mentality) | the
regulation that no British civil servant would be promoted unless he knew
either Sinhala or Tamil. |
| 1823 | Kandy has 5 Missionary schools | |
| 1824 | European Businesses in Colombo are permitted to import | Governer Sir Edward Barnes remove the govt restriction on imports to the delightment of the European traders in Colombo who will expand their businesses. |
| 1824 | Population in Lanka is estimated at 851,940 | Within 87 years this will increase to 4,106,300 due to immigration & natural increase. |
| 1825 | Colombo-Kandy Road completed. | British desperate to build roads. First to overcome the guerilla warfare & then to keep the trade moving. |
| 1826 | Mahawansa is discovered | George Turnour, British civil servant, GA of Ratnapura, with the help of Buddhist monks traced the Mahavandsa written in Pali verse on old ola leaves ( dried leaves of Talipot leaves), in the library in Mulkirigala viharaya built in 150BC. |
| 1827 | 300 out of 2100 cinnamon workers dies | British forces people to move to other areas for labour work, but lack of transportation and housing facilities lead to many such labourers falling sick and dying. Out of 2100 cinnamon quashers 300 didn't return home this year as they fell dead on their 2-3 week long journeys thru jungles. |
| 1829 | Proof that British used forced labour, unpaid, to build the roads they were obsessed about | A memo by Commissioner of inland revenue confirm that British used forced labour, unpaid, to build the roads, in this case, Col-Kandy road. |
| 1830 | Economy improved & British reviews changes to ensure the continuity | |
| 1830 | Caste tactics devide the Sinhalese - The caste who hold offices will always go against the rebellions as their livelihood is threatened. | British tactic of getting Govigamas, who are half the population, to believe that they hold the upper hand in the society would devide the Sinhalese society with no hope of any liberation struggle ever becoming successful. The caste who hold offices will always go against the rebellions as their livelihood is threatened. It even devides the Bikkus as the Bikkus of high cast families even restricting the upasampada to lower casts. This made lower caste Bikkus to seek higher ordination from Burmese monks thus leading to the creation of Amarapura Nikaya. |
| 1830 | Urubokka & Kirama Dams collapse due to neglect | |
| 1832 | 30th January- Last King of Lanka dies in exile in India | |
| 1832 | British finally finish building the road they always wanted.Trinco-Kandy-Colombo | |
| 1832 | Lanka becomes the Constitutional Pioneer of the British Empire: Colebrook-Cameron Reforms - Creation of a faithful elite of several fractions, into the running of the colonial rule & the removal of harsh rules to satisfy this elite. | Instead of concentration of power on a governer, the reforms recommended a government with a administrative, legistative framework run by British offcials using the local chiefs, locals educated in European schools. It was a successful breakaway from the Dutch admn system in place. It also took away colonial rules such as the ones introduced during Portugese & the Dutch times, that were felt hard and harsh on the public ( Mainly the elite). Instead it concentrated on enrolling a created faithful elite of several fractions, into the running of the colonial rule. It was a classic way of taking care of rebellions. |
| 1833 | Peradeniya wooden bridge is built without using a single nail or nut. | Thomas Skinner as the Highway commissioner, builds the bridge by the locals, made of Burutha , A model is still in a museum in UK, no nails or nut. |
| 1833 | British establish Supreme court | |
| 1833 | Set up of Legistative Council - One for each community( Burgher,Tamil, Sinhala ), Sinhala one will be a Catholic & from the same families ; In reality, Sinhala community is NOT represented. | This was to reduce the monopoly of the governer in ruling the country. It introduced 3 unoffcial representation for the major native ethnic groups , one each from Burgher, Sinhala & Tamil community. Burgher is selected from Chamber of Commerce, & Planters Association. Sinhala & Tamil one is selected from the same families ( in Sinhala, mainly from Alwis or Obeysekera families) which some independant observers see as not a way to really represent the community. Even the Sinhala representative will always be a Catholic until 1889 ( when a post created to represent a Kandyan in the hope that he will be a Buddhist.) |
| 1833 | British establish Kachcheri in Anuradapura, leading to holy city being populated | Soon many Govt buildings and residences, meat stalla, taverns, kovils, churches begin to buildup. They complain that the drumming and prayings in temples are a nuisance to them. British limit the hours where noise can be made. This agitates Buddhists. |
| 1840 | Under pressure from Missionaries Anti-Buddhist elements, Colonial Govt disassociates Buddhism from the State | James Stephen, an ardent anti-Buddhist official in the State office, anti-Buddhist elements incl Missionaries, Secrataries of States apply pressure on the govt to show that there is no meaning of sticking to the promise it did under Kandyan convention in 1815 to protect & safeguard Buddhism. They also forget the promise they renewed in 1818 under the rebellion. So the Colonilal office take a policy decision to disassociate from Buddhism. |
| 1840 | Dr Christopher Elliot, a British Medical practitioner pushes for genuine representation of the Lankans in the legistative council. | Dr Christopher Elliot, a British Medical practitioner pushes for genuine representation of the lankans in the legistative council. His demands are veiwed as very radical and it will take another 100 years before his line of thinking takes place. He is advised by the sec of state that further allocation of representation could lead collapse of the British control. |
| 1840 | British Governer refuse to sign for appointing Bikkus - Another breach of the Kandyan convention | Protested by the Christian missionaries, Governer James Alexander stuart refuse to sign the document that appoints bikku leaders. That was another breach of section 5 of the treaty made in 1815. |
| 1841 | British establish a varnacular schools for Sinhala & Tamil, but charges heavy fees masses cant afford so that only the collaborating class can afford to send children.not enough to cover the masses. No secondary schools | From
1841, the British provided vernacular schools teaching in Sinhala and
Tamil. The Portugese and Dutch too, had given instruction in these two
languages. But it is viewed as a sham to silence the critics. It does not
provide the opportunity to the masses & was hardly recognized in the
British ruling system in Lanka. No secondary schools, Charges a lot of
money so that only the officials can send children. |
| 1843 | Only child of the last king, dies childless in India in Exile | |
| 1843 | Coffee profits at it's peak | |
| 1845 | First Non-Govigamas are appointed to Mudaliyars posts | Reluctant to depend on one social class, British decide to have competition. They use new rich Karawe mainly. |
| 1845 | Coffe profits declined | |
| 1847 | Christians pressure lead the British to refuse to take responsibility of Dalada - Another breach of 1815 Kandyan convention | Protested by the Christian Advisory Committee, & missionaries, Governer Viscount Torrington is ordered by British Foreign secretary stanley, to detach all govt connections with Buddhism in ceylon.That was another breach of section 5 of the treaty made in 1815. |
| 1848 | Kandyans become landless as more & more is acquired by British for plantation agriculture | |
| 1848 | British realise the need to restore the irrigation system | Noticing the reasons for the rebellion, British Governer Sir Henry Ward notice the need to restore irrigation, which can reduce rice imports & increase export revenues. It will take another 7 years to materialise. |
| 1849 | GongaleGoda Banda is exiled to Malacca | on 1st January, after 100 lashes , he is sent to Malacca for life along with other prisoners. He will die in 11 monthes in exile. |
| 1849 | Gongalegoda Banda dies in exile | on 1st December, he dies. Other fellow rebel prisoners in exile informs Lanka of his death. |
| 1849 | Revival of Tamil Hindu much ahead of Buddhst revival thru the coming of Arumuga Navalar - The foremost Tamil revivor | After working with Missionaries he learnt the art of propaganda, and the missionary tactic which he countered with his own work later on. People like him who were part of the British & Catholics sytem against Hinduism, and the rich South Indian support they could always get, placed Tamil Hindu Revival much ahead of Buddhst revival. |
| 1849 | Vannarponnai Press is set up by Arumuga Navalar to help in maintaining Hindu & tamil identity | |
| 1849 | Arumuga Navalar also set up the school which will become Jaffna Hindu College, the premier Tamil school in Lanka | |
| 1850 | Lanka population is 1.73 million | |
| 1853 | British favours Catholics of Karawe caste: Appointment of a wealthy Karawe brings Govigama protesting | Appointment of the wealthiest Sinhalese, Jeronis De Soysa of Moratuwa to the post of Mudalier make the Govigama caste to protest demanding only Govigamas be appionted to high posts. The Governer Sirt George Anderson refuse this time as he wanted Competition. He was scared of Govigama becoming too powerful. Karawe was an ideal trustworthy candidate being predominantly Catholics. |
| 1856 | British start to restore Irrigation networks with Uma Ela in Uva. | It's success prompt the governer ward to implement several others. In 50 years Rs.13.5 million will be spent on restoring irrigation. It will stop food shortages that frequently happened under European rule, and will create a surplus of rice that will be exported. |
| 1856 | Restoration of Kantalai Irrigation project cancelled | Due to deseases like Malayria, lack of population in dry zones, lack of transports, forced the abandoning of these projects. |
| 1856 | Gamsabhas are established | To control cultivation & use of water in villages. |
| 1857 | Indians Two-year bloody rise up against British rule : Nepalese, Sikhs & many Princes don’t support it. Atrocities occurred on both sides, with massacres of British soldiers and women and children at the garrison in Kanpur, and the firing of captured mutineers from cannon by the British.Nepal and the Sikhs stayed loyal (the Sikhs had been bitterly hostile to the Mughal Empire), while most Indian princes stayed aloof. | Indian soldiers (sepoys) serving in the Bengal army of the British East India Company mutinied against their British masters. There were many reasons: the sepoys resented British indifference to Hinduism and caste traditions, the Westernizing reforms and Chistian missionaries in British India, and having to fight overseas. The immediate cause was the new model of Enfield rifle issued by the East India Company. To load the rifles, the sepoys had to bite off the ends of cartridges greased with a mixture of fat from cows (sacred for Hindus) and pigs (unclean for Muslims). The Company corrected the mistake as soon as it was discovered but, none the less, in April 1857, 85 sepoy troopers at Meerut near Delhi refused to use the new rifles and were put in irons. On May 10, their comrades freed them, killed their officers, and marched on Delhi: the mutiny had begun. The rapid spread and popularity of the mutiny indicate that there were clearly deeper causes for resentment. The rapid annexations of large areas of India by Dalhousie, the forceful introduction of English as the medium of learning, the apparent contempt for the traditions and culture of the various communities must all have been contributing factors. The sepoy garrison in Delhi immediately joined the mutiny, restoring the last shah of the Mughal Empire to his throne; further uprisings took Kanpur (Cawnpore) and besieged Lucknow. The people of north and central India joined the revolt. In Gwalior Tatya Tope and Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi formed a powerful rebel force. |
| 1858 | Restoration of Yoda Ela irrigation project cancelled | Due to desease like Malayria, lack of population in dry zones, lack of transports, force the abandoning of these projects. |
| 1859 | British just manage to crush the Indian rebellion with Sikh, Nepal & the silence of many neutral princes. British Govt take over India from East India Co. & give greater consideration for Indian views & traditions, This also make Indians to develop a political nationalist movement for freedom. | Enormously outnumbered, the British desperately defended Lucknow and Arrah, recapturing Kanpur in July 1857 and Delhi in September. Lucknow was relieved in March 1858 by Colin Campbell, and central India was subdued by April 1859. British reprisals and acts of vengeance followed the mutiny, with many mutineers and civilians executed without trial. In Delhi, in particular, thousands of people were killed. The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, was publicly humiliated. The mutiny had erupted rapidly from a single incident but the rebels, lacking leadership or any clear strategy except a general aim to overthrow the conquerors, had collapsed just as quickly under the superior organization, and sheer self-confidence of the British. As a direct result of the mutiny, the East India Company was abolished and the British crown took over the government of India. Henceforth, the British Empire showed greater consideration for Indian views and traditions; but the myth of British invulnerability had been punctured and India developed a political nationalist movement to press for freedom. |
| 1860 | 3000 miles of roads built costing over one million sterling pounds | In order to facilitate trade & to send forces. |
| 1860 | Coconut become the 2nd best plantation next to coffee | Cheaper to maintain, need less labour ( did not need Indian Tamils as the few Sinhalese workers were enough ), need little capital to start than coffee… |
| 1860 | Tea plantation is introduced. | |
| 1860 | New Governer cancels restoration of irrigation projects | Sir Charles MacCarthy sees no profit or short-term benefit to the projects, He cancels them & invests more in railway to coffee plantations. |
| 1860 | Buddists resistance & liberation campaigns begin to grow | Mainly true Bikkus of Amarapura nikaya, some traders, in low country start public debates & meetings where Buddhsits defend & beat others convincingly. |
| 1860 | All except the Sinhala elite request reforms in the council. | Planters, European settlers, Burghers, Dutch descendants all req unofficial representation to be increased & reforms to be introduced in order to hand more power to locals. Sinhala elite refuse & their continuous lack of interest thru out the 19th century makes these cries fruitless. |
| 1861 | Ceylon Volunteer Corps is formed | commencing the volunteer service in Lanka, Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers delights mercantile community. It grows into several volunteer units. |
| 1862 | Set up of Lankopakara Press in Galle | This will look after printing needs of the campaigns. |
| 1862 | 1st phase of the Buddhist campaign-Society for the propagation of Buddhism | is considered as the first phase of the campaign for the rights of Sinhala Buddhists. |
| 1862 | Present Tuparamaya is restored | present one is only 63 ft tall & 59 ft in diameter. It hardly shows it's former explendour now. |
| 1864 | De Soysa family become the wealthiest in Lanka | Helped by income from arrack, ferries, agriculture investments in everywhere in Lanka. This creates a powerful Karawe caste who will always fight for places in the govt mostly unsuccessfully, as British would always look for Govigama faithfuls of which there were many. |
| 1865 | State Secretaries notice ill-effects of neglect on Irrigation | Sir Hercules Robinson speaks of bad effects of the neglect & renew projects with limited budget available. |
| 1865 | Establishing Ramanya nikaya as an offshoot of Amarapura Nikaya who support the sinhala Buddhist campaign wholeheartedly | This new nikaya will always stress on issue of poverty & humiliation of the Sinhalese Buddhists. |
| 1868 | Curious British take photos of the Lost city of Polonnaruwa- again the Sinhala Disawe is NOT interested | While persuing British Lt.Fagan's discovery after 48 years a British civil servant named Birch, and a British Lt.Stewert trace the lost city & photograph it, These photos prompt the British Governer Sir Arthur Gordon to order Tamankaduwe disawe to clear the jungle & excavate the ruins. |
| 1868 | Civil service has 74 Britons & only 10 Lankans( including Burghers) | |
| 1869 | Coffee affected by a leaf dicease | Coffe plantation will cease in 20 years |
| 1869 | Secondary School is opned to Lankans | |
| 1869 | Dirty tactics to force students to Missionary schools-Govt schools are closed whereever a missionary school is opened | Whenever a missionary school is opened, the govt school in the area which normally charge a lot of money, is closed forcing the students in to the missionary school. Education becomes a tool to brainwash natives into submission. |
| 1869 | 140 schools with 8751 students alarms British | In 10 years both these figures shoot up by eight times alarming the British of having too many members of the elite. |
| 1870 | Governer personally orders reluctant Sinhala Disawe to clear the jungle in Polonnaruwa | photos taken in 1868, prompt the British Governer Sir Arthur Gordon to order Tamankaduwe disawe to clear the jungle & excavate the ruins. Work start supervised by S.M.Burrows, Archy commissioner at the time. |
| 1870 | Indian Tamils number 123,000 | |
| 1870 | Colombo Medical College opened | |
| 1871 | Kandy railway opened- British get upperhand in transport | British desperate to break the Sinhalese monopoly on transport , Sinhalase businessmen owned carts, crafts, lorries. British hoped railway would give them the upperhand. |
| 1871 | Marriage laws ban polyandry in Kandyan Kingdom | |
| 1872 | British realized the potential in trade income from rice- allows Sir William Gregory to restore the irrigation networks. | He obtained full backing from London to give priority to restore & expand irrigation networks. This time the British archaelogists reports about the dry zone impress the Birtish to look for possiblity of making profits on rice. A GA is appointed to the North central province to personally supervise. Villagers do the labour, Govt gives sluice & masonary work free, Gamsaba provides admin at grassroot level, 100s of tanks repaired. |
| 1872 | Founding the Vidyodaya Pirivena | |
| 1873 | Cold war between British & the capable Lankan elite start- British rethinks tactics to keep the rising capable elite down - They make rules to limit Lankan elite to areas where decision-making was minimum | British notices the new breed of anglicized, self-made, Lankans who could take the European masters head-to-head & who demonstrated ambitious, power hungry, leadership qualities. British introduces tactics to bar this Lankan elite from entering higest echelons of power. They make rules to divert the rising elite to less powerul areas like Medical, Education, Judiciary services ( keeping them away from GA, AGA, Railway, Survey, Irrigation) where the decision making was minimal & they are unable to show initiative & influence. |
| 1873 | British decides to favour Govigama caste again as a tactic to hold Lanka | They also go back to favouring Govigamas as they are the majority by downsizing even the Catholic Karawes. This leads to a social trend, in a domino effect of lower castes being rejected & discriminated all the way down by the Sinhala majority Govigama caste. |
| 1873 | Panadura Debate - An American reads this report & migrate to Lanka to help Buddhists | Boldest, most brilliant & powerful champion of Sinhala Buddhism, Ven. Migettuwatte Gunananda thero(The terror of the Missionaries ) silences critics in an excellent, witty, & elequant speeches. This report grabs the attention of an American in USA named Henry Olcott, who decide to migrate to Lanka to help Buddhists. He will arrive in 2 years. |
| 1873 | Battle for Anuradapura begins-as the British refuse to respect Buddhists pleas | Battle for Anuradapura begins as the British rejects the Buddhist pleas & Builds Govt buildings on Sinhala heritage of A'pura. British selects Anuradapura as Admin capital for N'Central province and establishes govt buildings on top of historic monuments without any respect for Sinhala heritage |
| 1874 | Law college opened | |
| 1874 | Jethavanaramaya grabs the attention of British Archeologists | Curious Biritish begin to clear the base of jungle covered JTVNRMya to study it in detail. What they find over the next 20 years impressed them so much that it received wide publicity, & attention. Discovery of Sinhalese history make many British archeologists learn to respect the heritage. |
| 1875 | Founding the Vidyalankara Pirivena | |
| 1875 | Arrival of Sir Henry Olcott & Madame Blavatsky- He teaches Lankans about the tactics of the missionaries, tells the British that it was wrong to disassociate the state from Buddhism. | Attracted by the reports on Panadura debate he decides to help Lankan Buddhsts in their struggle against the Catholic forces. He teaches Lankans for the first time the tactics of the Missionaries, and the weaknesses of Christianity. He gets Vesak a Public holiday, and helps design Buddhist flag in 1885. He will make the British Governer Gordon admit that British had hastily severed the state's association with Buddhism. |
| 1875 | Olcott establishes Buddhist Theosophical society to help the education | Noticing the apathy of the Buddhsits, financial problems, lack of teachers & administrators in education, Olcott set up the society to organize Buddhist education islandwide with the financial help of a few traders. |
| 1876 | The Best British Irrigation Work in the Colonial world so far- 19th century's best irrigation administration see good harvests in developed areas of the dry zone. | Restore work in the dry zone make the governer Sir William Gregory's effort the best British effort so far in the colonial world. Governer Gregory claim that there never was a British social experiment more speedily & entirely successful, as the half-starved dying villagers in the areas became well-fed healthy well-to-do farmers in a few harvests. Governer is credited with having the 19th century's best irrigation administration. It will also increase the population in rice areas manyfold. Specially in the south where the increase become 46% |
| 1876 | Kirindi Oya project is completed. | |
| 1877 | Major Thomas Skinner dies | 10 years after retirement, a British officer who liked Lanka so much, & who fought so much to protect the original Sinhalese culture, dies. |
| 1877 | Rubber plantations introduced | Rubber needed mainly part-time workers for which there were enough Sinhalese workers.( like in Coconut.) |
| 1877 | Selfish & racist European Planters opposes irrigation project | Representatives of the European planters in the legistative council oppose restoration of tanks. |
| 1877 | Under pressure, British introduces the Grain Tax - Sinhala rice production & farmers are doomed again. Even Ponnambalam Ramanathan speak against this injustice. | Governer Godon Gordon introduces an irrigation fund using 25% of the profits of the rice trade. This become a severe burden on farmers, specially the ones who burrow money to cultivate or whose crop get destroyed in natural disasters. Strict implementation of the tax meant govt seized the land & sold it to recover the arrears. This led to starvation of farmers in affected areas. Even Ponnambalam Ramanathan & many newspapers in Colombo try to battle against the British propaganda justifying it. |
| 1878 | There are 1178 schools with 67,750 students | This is an increase of 800% within 9 years |
| 1880 | Civil service exam is conducted in London to filter only the most loyal Lankans into higher jobs- Only the most loyal has the opportunity to make such wealth ( to afford the exam in London) | In order to make sure only the most loyal get well-looked after and has the opportunity, British abolishes the civil service exam held in Lanka. Locals are advised to go to London to do the exam. This makes the cost unbearable even to the wealthy. Only the most loyal has enough opportunity make such wealth. Thus, the British shakes themselves free of local ties. To make Lankans happy a queen's scholarship is offered to Lankans who get "Selected". The argument is that it lowers standards & efficiency by having the exam in Lanka. |
| 1880 | 2nd, 3rd & 4th Generations of collaborating Sinhala elite start to despise Sinhala masses - Sinhala way of respecting those who serve the people & the country best, is now limited to a family-tradition of fewer & fewer Sinhala families who struggle to maintain the original Sinhala values. | British want to keep civil service to themselves and directs the rising native elite to law, medicine & church activities. Chilredn of Mudaliers start getting into legal careers. They despise the average public & oppose the education being offered to the common public in fear of losing their previlidge position. As they introduce a new social class, controlling the elite become a problem both to the British & the people. 2nd, 3rd & 4th Generations of collaborating Sinhala elite start to develop reasons to despise & discriminate Sinhala masses to ensure their place in the society - Sinhala way of respecting those who serve the people & the country best, is now limited to a family-tradition of fewer & fewer Sinhala families who struggle to maintain the original Sinhala values. |
| 1880 | Sinhalese Elite refuse to extend the education to the rest of the Sinhalese public | British who didn't want to spend on education to the average Sinhalese, are supported by the new Sinhala elite. It is one of the cruicial issues they agree on. Sinhalese such as J.P.Obeysekera,( Sinhala rep in the Legistative council), even publicly claim children of the poor should not be educated for they might cause their parents to get into debt by spending lavishly. They were fearful that education would stimulate social change undermining their priviledged position which was theirs by inheritance( or, rather by collaboration and timidness). |
| 1881 | To control the local elite, British reduces Lankan representation to 7 ( Including Burghers) from 10 in 1868 | Civil service has 84 Britons & 7 Lankans( including Burghers) - Lankan representation has been reduced to 7 from 10 in 1868 |
| 1883 | Religious Riots of Kotahena- Vesak celebrations of Buddhists annoy Catholics who are the majority in the area. | Ven Migettuvatte Gunananda thero in Kotahena temple organised a pinkama to honour completion of a Budda Statue. His fiery speeches and continuation of the pinkama during the week angers Catholics who are the majority in the area. Many Catholics are arrested for creating trouble. Sir Henry Olcott himself represent matters to London about the grievances of the Buddhists. |
| 1885 | JTVRMya top parts collapses | The square tower gets damaged in a slip, one section of the Hataras kotuwa was already missing. British reluctant to repair. Fortunately, British Archeologists who like Buddhist heritage, insist on repair work. Their pressure forces British to release funds for the repair work. |
| 1885 | Lady Ridgeway Hospital established | |
| 1885 | Buddhist flag is designed, helped by Sir Henry Olcott | |
| 1885 | Revival of Islam in Lanka | Under lawyer named Siddi Lebbe, assisted by Arabi Pasha, the exiled leader of an abortive egyptian religious uprising in 1882, Muslims are told of the importance of education which they have been ignoring all this time. Muslims are told to save their children from brainwashing by the whirteman. |
| 1885 | British legistators note that Lanka, despite having a massive educated social elite, lacks enthusiasm & agitation for reforms | Are we surprised ? No. Are we worried ? No, No. |
| 1885 | Only the Sinhala rep vote against the Vesak poya day holiday ( While even the Governer & Tamil rep vote for it) | As even Governer Gordon, and Tamil rep P.Ramanathan vote in favour to make Vesak a public holiday, only one vote fell against it, it was the vote of the Sinhalese rep H.L.Alwis, a distant relative of Obeysekera and Bandaranayaka family. |
| 1886 | Samadi Pilimaya ( Which Nehru use to meditate in British prison) is discovered | Fallen on the ground, with a broken nose. The bad nose repair job & the cement roof erected later to cover it, has spoilt the serene image of it. It will gain publicity in South Asia as Sri Javaharlal Nehru uses it's image to meditate & found immense peace & solace, in the prison by the British in India. |
| 1887 | A tunnel is dug thru Jethavnrmaya | British dig 162 ft long tunnel thru JTVNRMya by British Archaeologists to find any butied books or documents. The Bricks thus taken out will be used later to reconstruct the stupa. |
| 1888 | 1048 peasants died of starvation near offcials lawn tennis & health centre | As recorded by C.J.R.Le Mesurier AGA-N'Eliya. This is due to Grain tax, which lead to near famine, rural poverty, starvation. |
| 1888 | Muslims ask for a seat in the council & is rejected by the British | |
| 1889 | Two additional seata are created in Legistative council to represent the Kandyans & the Muslim community | British try to please the Buddhists by saying that the Kandyan can represent the Buddhists. |
| 1890 | British archeologists get green light for Anuradapura excavations after 70 years | Under Bell, British Archy commissioner, & other fascinated British archeologists, excavation begin 70 yrs after it was discovered by a young British civil servant, Ralph Backhaus. |
| 1890 | Collapse of Coffee Industry | |
| 1890 | British try Sugar, cotton, tea, rubber after coffee | |
| 1890 | Theosophical society establish 40 Buddhsit schools breaking the monopoly of Missionary schools | |
| 1891 | Indain Tamils number 235,000 | |
| 1892 | Best surviving Vahalkada's of Lanka are found in MirisaVetiya-A'pura, It'll get destroyed in 1987 | Vahalkada of Mirisavetiya built by King Dutugemunu in 161 BC, 2000 yrs ago, gain much praise from Archeologists & the art historians for the fine architectural features. But on 7th June 1987, Mirisavetiya collapsed completely destroying everything including the great Vahalkadas. It was President Premadasa who will direct it be rebuilt at a cost of 28 million rupees, & cereminiously opened it on 4th June, 1993. |
| 1892 | Sinhala rep James pieris opposes abolishing of the Grain tax while Tamil rep Ramanathan & Kandyan rep Panabokke push for it. | Tamil rep Ramanathan & Kandyan rep Panabokke push for the abolishing of it as it killed the Sinhala rice farmer. But Sinhala rep refuse to support it. However, Grain tax is abolished. To compensate for the loss income, British will form the import tax on imported cheap rice. This collected money will be used for the irrigation fund. But it is too late and does not really help the already dead rice cultivation. |
| 1893 | A monk begin work on RuwanVeliMahaSeya with some villagers | Ruins of RWMSeya is restored by a pious monk named Naranvita Sumanasara, who start reconstruction work with the local villagers. Later it will get a boost by the establishment of Ratnamali ChaityaWardana society. Work will finish in 47 yrs. But it is smaller than the original massive monument. |
| 1895 | Matara railway opened | |
| 1896 | Big damage in Jethavanaramaya forces British to start repairing | Western face of Hataras kotuwa collapsed severely shaking the whole structure. Alarmed British Archeologists started repair work, HCP Bell made substantial contribution. |
| 1897 | Walisinha Harishchandra renounces civil life to preserve Buddhist rights | Walisinha Harishchandra, a student at Wesley college, gave up studies after listening to a lecture by Anagarika Darmapala, & joined him, to live a life of a Brahmachari to preserve Buddhism in Lanka. He start to practise public speech in Sinhala. |
| 1897 | Indian Tamils begin to settle down in Lanka as Tea become a ripper, earning nearly 60% of the export income | It grabs no.1 beating chinese tea in London markets. Requirement of labour thru out the whole year, turn the Indian Tamils who were seasonal workers into full timers. As tea needs around the year labour, the seasonal work patterns stopped & many of them are forced to stay permanently for economic reasons. With this many of them limit their trips back & forth to & from South India and turn into permanent residents in Lanka. |
| 1898 | In foolish competition, Kandyans begin their claim as the highest cast. While the Sinhalese are thus devided in foolish hostility, British benefits. | As a result of the competition created by British between the Govigama & Karawe castes, the caste devide reaches it's ugliest point as TB Panabokke claims that the highest caste of Sinhalese are the Upcountry Govigama's. The theory of Kandyan supremacy over the rest of the Sinhalese now begins. While the Sinhalese are thus devided in foolish hostility, British benefits. |
| 1898 | British try to take Thuparamaya, refusing to honour Ancient Sanansa issued by Kings, that guarantee temple rights to the land. They destroy valuable archeological evidence | Under the excuse that if a land is not occupied or utilized for religious purposes, it is a crown land, British try to take Thuparamaya. British refuse to honour or accept ancient king's sannasa that guarantee the temple rights. To evict a Siamese monk from Tuparamaya, colonial govt declare the temple a crown land & evicts the monk. Declaring the same again, the hut of a residing Upasaka is demolished by the Sinhala Town Arachchi on another occassion. All these leads to Buddhsit riots of 1903 in Anuradapura. |
| 1898 | British refuse to recognise more than two Buddhist temples in A'pura. All other sacred places are covered in jungle. | Colonial govt's list of buddhist temples in Anuradapura,( to assure the rights under the Temple Lands Commission of 1856), has only two ( Udamaluwa & RuwanveliSeya). Colonial govt refuse to honour the ancient Sannasas issued by Sinhala Kings assuarring the land rights of the temples. Many Atamastanayas, including RuwanveliSeya's lands were covered in jungle unless Buddhists could gather enough resources to repair them. All these leads to Buddhsit riots of 1903 in A'pura. |
| 1898 | Refusing to recognize Buddhist temples, British begin to demolish temples in Anuradapura. Monk buys the rubble in auction. | Colonial govt refuse to honour the ancient Sannasas issued by Sinhala Kings assuarring the land rights of the temples. One temple( Meda Pansala) in Anuradapura is forcibly demolished and pieces were bought back in the auction for scrap, by the monk Ratanapala Anunayaka thero himself. All these leads to Buddhsit riots of 1903 in Anuradapura. |
| 1898 | British GA in Anuradapura rejects the Sannansa issued by the King, & demolish Gonameriyava temple | C.S Vaughen-GA Anuradapura declared the sannasa issued by last king (SriVikrama Rajasinghe) for the 2000 acres of land of Gonameriyava temple, invalid. All these under the excuse that if a land is not occupied or utilized for religious purposes, it is a crown land. |
| 1898 | British use stones of Buddhist temples to build roads, Even Archeologists ignore the destruction of MahaPadmaViharaya in A'pura | C.P.Bell, Archeological Commissioner refuses to stop the workers crushing the stonepillars of the MahaPadmaViharaya, to be used as stones on roads. British thus remove archeological findings away on carts to be either neglected & destroyed elsewhere without records, as the chief monks appeal for his attention. All these leads to Buddhsit riots of 1903 in Anuradapura. |
| 1899 | While Sinhala representatives are silent, Tamil rep become the unofficial Buddhsit rep in the council | As the Sinhala representative and the Kandyan rep are both silent, P.Ramanathan, Tamil rep in the council, nephew of Sir Muttu Coomaraswamy, speaks for the Buddhists & get praised by the Buddhists in gratitude. He is even considered by Buddists as their representative in the council. |
| 1899 | Using the silence of the Sinhala elite, British claimed that ethnic relations are far more cordial in Lanka than any other colony | The successful devisive facters were religion & the caste, which affected only the Sinhalese. The elite of other communities were always attentive to their continuity and pushed for it while the Sinhala reps ignored the dangerous future the Sinhala community was heading into, and pushed only to maintain their position. |
| 1899 | As almost all govt buildings, official residences, markets, schools were located in the land belonging to Atamastanaya-First well organized Buddhist movement to protect Anuradapura is born | Walisinghe Harishchandra, on request by Anagarika Darmapala, is sent to Anuradapura by Mahabodi society to safeguard Budddhist monuments and interests as activities of enemies were threatening and Colonial govt was taking no interest in protecting the city. Almost all govt buildings, official residences, markets, schools were located in the land belonging to Atamastanaya, ignoring the Buddhists requests. |
| 1899 | " We may not succeed, But we must try, and ten years later we might get what we try to achieve"- Anagarika Darmapala | Advising of why they should look at long term objectives rather than short term gains in order to free the sacred ancient city of Anuradapura, Anagarika Darmapala says " we are quite powerless to stop theses acts of state vandalism due to the high status of officials concerned. We may not succeed, But we must try, and ten years after we might get what we try to achieve." |
| 1900 | Ceylon Defence Force goes to Boer War-first war under British | In 1910, the name of the Ceylon Light Infantry volunteers Force will be changed to Ceylon Defence Force |
| 1900 | Karawe competes Govigama for the Sinhala post in the council. British continue to favour Govigama, refusing Karawe. | Karawe dominated capitalist elite, mainly Christians, challenge the Govigama for the post in legistative council. Karawe members, though strong financially & socially, despite being mainly Catholics, are continuously barred the British. British decides to continue to choose the faithful govigama members saying 'Family tradition of loyal service to crown is more important than medicore intelectual talents". |
| 1900 | With the little money collected from poor Sinhala farmers, First Buddhist schools are established in Rajarata after many centuries | with only 3 rupees in the account, Mahabodi society desperately preach in Rajarata gathering only Rs.9.45 from mainly poor Sinhalese. Within an year they collect enough money to establish the first two Buddhist schools in the North Central province and the North province. First school will be in Kekirawa, second in Anuradapura. But poverty and Malaria affects children's ability to attend school. Schools function only on donations as the parents have no money to give. |
| 1901 | Sinhalese Royal park, Mahamevuna Uyana is discovered by British archeologists | British archeologists led by H.C.P. Bell discover the ancient Royal park of over 40 acres. It is so large that the excavations continue even today. Even today, archeologists continue to find astonishing archeological evidence on the glory of the lost grand civilisation of the Sinhalese. |
| 1901 | Lanka population is 3.56 million | Increase of over 260% in 50 years. |
| 1901 | Anuradapura Buddhist Defence council is established | After 2 years of organising, the council fights for the protection of the sacred places. Chief thero of Atamastanaya is the president and V.Harishchandra is the secretary. They plan to appoint island wide local managers to expand. |
| 1901 | British who refused rebuilding of the monastry, decides to build the Medical officers Bungalow on the Adahana Maluwa, a sacred land in Anuradapura. Angry Buddhists protest. This is also one factor that led to Anuradapura riots of 1903. | Year ago when chief monk of Atamastanaya applied for permission to erect a building for a monastry on ancient AdahanaMaluwa in Anuradapura, Govt refused. The Monks protested against the govt plan to erect offices on this sacred land. Determined to erect the office, the colonial government devided the land and said monks can have the western half & that the government would build a office in the eastern half. Buddhists are angry. V.Harishchandra's followers prepare the land to build a monastry, repeatedly claiming it is a Buddhist land. Their nameboard "Mahabodi Society" is repeatedly brought down by the colonial government and it is again erected in the night by the Buddhists. The arguments and the war of petitions drag on for 3 years finally leading to Anuradapura riots of 1903. |
| 1902 | John Ferguson records the reluctance for reforms by the Sinhalese elite | John Ferguson, owner edior of Ceylon Observer, who is an unofficial European representative in the council notes that "the Sinhala elite is our greatest difficulty in pushing for reforms. Obeysekera ( Govigama & also the Sinhala rep in the counsil ) objects to local elections & James peiris ( karawe ) does not even reply. They do not want power to be transfered to their own countrymen" |
| 1903 | Don Senanayake's ( father of D.S) Temperence Society draws huge crowds | Their meetings draw over 20,000 when Colombo has only 6000. But it does not groa as the non-Buddhists fear it will develop into Buddhsit nationalism. |
| 1903 | Colombo population is 6000 | |
| 1903 | 9th June-Anuradapura riots - frustrations of a helpless and downtrodden community, are let loose…..& then the British are ready to consider the demands for temple rights | Mudaliyar Amarasekera, carelessly knocked over an old women while trying to ride his carriage carelessly through a pilgrimage crowd in Anuradapura. Without stopping to treat the old lady, he continued to his house. Angry by his arrogance and careless attitude, the husband of the woman and some of the other pilgrims went to protest in front of the house. The Mudaliyar came out with his thugs and assaulted the protestors. Angry locals then attacked his house and other places within the sacred city in order to clear the area. But situation got out of hand as rioters led by a Ratwatte Rate Mahattaya attacked the Roman Catholic church severly assaulting and causing seroius injuries to Rev.Father Raux. Later, the colonial govt suspended him for not being on leave from duty by coming to Anuradapura for no valid reason. But considering the loyal service of his father as a Mudaliyar, British gave him back the job. Around 34 rioters were sent to prison for up to 3 years. The damage to the church was exagerated many times and was upto nine times of the second biggest damage claimed in the riot. |
| 1903 | British give priority to the loyal service by the family- Ratwatte Rate Mahattaya, who attacked the Catholic church injuring Rev.Father Rauxhim, get his job back. The others are punished. | Though the colonial govt suspended Ratwatte Rate Mahattaya for not being on leave from duty by coming to Anuradapura for no valid reason, considering the loyal service of his father as a Mudaliyar, British gave Ratwatte Rate Mahattaya, who attacked the Roman Catholic church severly assaulting and causing seroius injuries to Rev.Father Rauxhim, back his job. Others are punished. |
| 1903 | Governer asks Buddhists to pay compensation to the damaged Church before granting sufficient land rights to the temples | It was only after the riots the British decided to say that they are willing to consider reasonable demands of the Buddhists. Yet it was unfair to tax the whole of Buddhist community for the damage caused to a church by a convicted group of people who had already been fined and punished by the courts. This vindictive punishment irritates Buddhists again. |
| 1904 | British newspapers make fun of the selfish Sinhala elite of Ceylon | "Ceylon is Our Happy Possession, While other colony's make noise for more reforms, Ceylon makes Money". By Daily Graphics, a British newspaper comment on the silence of the Sinhala elite who are not interested in more reforms on legistative council |
| 1904 | Sinhala elite refuse a seat for low-country Sinhalese | John Ferguson's ( a European rep in council) request in the legistative council for a seat to be created to represent the low-country Sinhalese. But there was no one to second it. Obeysekera, the Sinhala rep even object to it. |
| 1904 | "Sinhala elite cant match the intellectuality or maturity of the Tamil reps"-says European reps | John Ferguson ( a European rep in council) noted none of the Sinhala elite can match the intellectuality or maturity of the Tamil reps some of whom even speak on behalf of the Buddhists as the totally anglican Sinhala rep do not even speak on Buddhist affairs. |
| 1904 | Frustrated by the British favouring Govigama, Elite of the low-country Sinhalese, decided to neglect the national struggle & concentrate on money-making. The rest of the powerless Sinhalese are left helpless | Being more interested in very lucrative trade ( plantation agriculture, liquor, coconut, rubber ) than persuing national interests, they deviated themselves from the national liberation or political struggle for the Sinhalese. While other communities established their stance on their rights, this left a vacuum for the leadership of the Sinhalese. leaderless & powerless, Sinhala people & their rights, went astray. It also left the door open to any liar with ulterior motives to step in to benefit from being the Sinhala leader. The sad plight of the once proud & grand Sinhala civilisation, continue even today. |
| 1904 | Tamil elite begin to push for reforms, supporting the Burghers, for more political power. British note the Tamil elite as tough customers to cheat | Tamil rep in the legistative council, Sir Muttu Coomaraswamy, and his successors kept up their support for the European reps who were pushing for the reforms. British would see Tamil reps as the most intriguing community in Lanka as they pushed for reforms. The Tamil elite whether as a Hindu or as a Christian, was far less anglicised than the Sinhala elite. They pushed for developing their areas and the people. They will get the railway built to Jaffna in the following year. |
| 1904 | Power of the Tamil elite threaten the Europeans- Tamil nationalism begins, Tamils make maximum use of Education opportunity in Jaffna as Jaffna begin to have highest literacy rate in Lanka | British would see Tamil reps as the most intriguing community in Lanka as they pushed for reforms. The Tamil elite whether as a Hindu or as a Christian, was far less anglicised than the Sinhala elite. They made big use of the education opportunity in Jaffna which made Jaffna the highest literacy rate in Lanka. They migrated to Asia, Africa for jobs & then to Colombo as there were few Sinhalese. They became the biggest competitors to the burghers who could not match them in this race. Also Tamil students who went to South India bring back feelings of Tamil nationalism . |
| 1904 | Japanese victory against Russia surprise the world | world surprises in 1904 during the Russo-Japanese War. Japan unexpectedly humiliated the much larger Russian Empire. |
| 1904 | Sinhalese Celebrations in Lanka for the Japanese victory | Sinhala associations collect money for Japan, Japanese war heros photos are sold in streets,( 15,000 coipes of Meesen, a Japanese commander, sell in one day), Sinhala leaders organize rallies in Colombo to celebrate the Japanese victory. Participated by Bikkus, Anagarika Darmapala says that Sinhalese must take an example from the Asian victory against the European powers. Sinhalese favourite countries are Japan & then China, even today. |
| 1905 | Jaffna railway is opened | |
| 1905 | Rubber Boom | Expanding motor-vehicle industry make rubber prices rise up |
| 1905 | Irrigation Dept is established without improving the efficiency or the productivity | But it fails to improve the investment in irigation works though it expanded the areas cultivated. The productivity was the lowest in Asia as the techniques haven't been made efficient. This enabled imported cheap rice from Burma being easily available. The Migrants & the upper classes preferred imported rice. Growing other crops was more profitable. Irrigation revival alone was not enough. |
| 1905 | Drumming case in Anuradapura - A classic example of how British is responsible for ethnic & racial problems, and also exactly why the Buddhsists asked for the sacred city to be left alone. | The colonial govt housed the govt officials in the sacred city despite protests by the Buddhists to leave the sacred city alone. Now some officials, mainly Europeans & Catholics, started to complain about Buddhist drumming in the temples, saying that they cant sleep. British quickly introduced a law prohibiting Buddhists to drum after 9pm as the govt servants who were housed in the sacred city by the British themselves , couldn't sleep. Buddhists were unhappy and angry. In April, drummers from Kurunegala drummed thru out the night and are taken into custody by the colonial police. |
| 1905 | Drumming case escalates as the British GA personally picks on the Buddhist procession | GA-Anuradapura, Vigors, who had a reputation of annoying the Buddhists, walked in with the police to ban the Buddhist procession to welcome Hikkaduwe Sumangala thero saying that they have to obtain a license for drumming. Buddhist monks calmed the angry Buddhist people down and accepted the ruling peacefully. |
| 1905 | "Bo-maluwa is not a religious area" -says British as GA & police walk in with their shoes on | When drumming started in Udamaluwa the same night, GA walked into Udamaluwa with their shoes on, to arrest the drummers. When many People spoke protesting to this disrespectful act, a Police Sergeant and a constable started to assault them. Two Sinhalese then hit back injuring the policemen. 5 people, including 3 drummers, are arrested and fined. British govt say that Bo-maluwa is not a religious worshipping area. |
| 1907 | Extremist Muslims take advantage on helplessness of the Buddhists- They prohibit any noise near the mosque in Gampola. Such agitations lead to 1915 Sinhala-Muslim riots | Taking advantage of the onslaught against the Buddhists, extremist Muslims put up a signboard at the mosque, prohibiting making any noise within 100 yards of the mosque on Ambagamuwa Street, Gampola. But Buddhists continue the Annual Buddhist procession from Gangatileke temple in Gampola, as it had done for the last 800 years. They will have to pass the mosque & the signboard. For next 5 years they will pass the signboard without problems. Then there will be problems. |
| 1907 | British who refused to build a public pilgrim house, build a rest house for the comforts of visiting European visitors in Anuradapura. They challenge the poor Buddhists to raise money to build a pilgrims rest | British had refused to grant funds to build a public pilgrim house in Anuradapura. Many Europeans were then interested to witness the great archeological findings in Anuradapura. On the same spot, near the banks of TissaWeva, British spend 50,000 Rs of public money to build a rest house for the comfort of visiting Europeans. This make Buddhists very angry. They have been asking for a public pilgrim house for the welfare of the Buddhist visitors. To calm down the Buddhists, devious British Govt finally say that they will provide the land "IF" Buddhists can come up with the money to build it. With almost all of the Sinhala elite simply being not interested, Poor Buddhists cannot raise that kind of money. |
| 1907 | The words "Buddhist Extremists" are introduced by the British as Governer lies about the Meat Stall near the sacred Bo-tree. | Replying to a written Buddhist request to get the meat stall removed from the sacred Bo-tree area, the Colonial govt says that it as an attempt engineered by Buddhist "extremists". They also say that the Governer on his visit personally witnessed that it was nowhere near a shrine. ( yeah, it was only just another "tree" it was close to.) This "Buddhist extremist" term will become favourite words of those who try to rip off Lanka in the decades to come. Whenever the Sinhala Buddhists try to speak against injustice or unfair deals, they will be labelled with this term. |
| 1908 | "Even in UK, the British citizens don’t get things done by sitting quiet" | Ceylon Morning Herald says this. The journalist was obviuosly surprised with the silence of the Sinhalese elite about what was going on. |
| 1910 | Rubber become the 2nd highest earner | Rubber become the 2nd highest earner, next to Tea, replacing Coconut |
| 1910 | Best standard of living for the ruling & colabarating elite in South Asia & South East Asia. Lankan elite & the Colonial masters are well-off at the expense of the hard working and oppressed peasants. | Along with Singapore & Malaysia, Lanka enjoys the best standard of living for the ruling & colabarating elite in South Asia & South East Asia. Native planters, investors, peasants play the key role in the economy. They become specialists in their jobs, increasing the productivity. But the profits are collected by the British & enjoyed by the elite, while peasants and the hard-workers get only a pittance. The elite and the European businessmen has very much less tax to pay compared to the very high income they get in tea, coffee, rubber, cinnamon, graphite mining, arrack sales. Land was easily accessible to them thru govt auctions and sales. |
| 1910 | Only two elite social groups to publicly push for reforms | Chilaw & Jaffna Associations become the only two elite social groups to publicly push for reforms. But they are too local & too few to make enough noise. |
| 1910 | British sponsored Kandyan Govigama elite now talk of a separate Kandyan state | Instead of pressing for more reforms and total independence of the country, the power of the British backed Kandyan Govigama elite, due to the silence of the Karawe caste who is busy making money, now think of Kandyan supremacy. John Halangoda cliams that the Kandyans, since they are a different race, need a separate state. |
| 1911 | Highest population Growth in Asia - Population shoot up to 4,106,300 | Both by natural increase & the immigration, due to the successful export economy |
| 1911 | Internal Migration into Colombo & Hill country | Flourishing plantations & trade in Colombo attract traders, Craftsmen, and technicians from other areas. |
| 1911 | Sinhala country should be ruled by the Sinhalese | Anagarika Darmapala addresses the Sinhalese. He try to awaken the true Sinhalese. He says that Sinhala country should be ruled by the Sinhalese for only them make it fair for everyone. |
| 1912 | Dept of Agriculture is formed | |
| 1912 | Ugly competition between Govigama & Karawe castes, see Govigama supporting a Tamil to win the post- This gives confidence to Tamil nationalism since there was no opposition from the Sinhala elite | H.U.P. Jayawardana ( JR's uncle), goes to India to invite Ponnambalam Ramanadan to contest for the educated Ceylonese post, which was created by 1911 Macculum proposals). He wants to beat the Sinhala contestant Marcus Fernando whose Karawe caste is criticised by the Jayawardanas. Sinhala elite get P.Ramanadan to fight low-caste Sinhala candidate. Both Jayawardana & Senanayaka families goes to the harbour to welcome P.Ramanadan, who wins the post, giving more ideas to the Tamil supremacists about the possibilty of the power they have in their hands. |
| 1912 | Buddhist procession from Gangatileke temple is blocked by Muslims near the mosque | Five years after erecting the noticeboard, the procession from the temple is blocked by Muslim extremists near the mosque. Elikewela who is the Basnayaka Nilame of the temple leads the precession through the Muslim protesters saying it is a 800 years old tradition. |
| 1912 | Muslims complain exagerated to the British - British ban making any noise within 50 yards of the mosque. Buddhists ask why only the Muslims are complaining when the Church on the same street is not troubled. | Muslims complained to the British GA for Kandy, P.S. Saxton, that the Buddhists were behaving badly. They claim that Buddhsits were making insulting noises near the mosque. British imposed a govt rule that no noise must happen within 50 yards radious of the mosque, and threaten to ban the temple procession if it breaks the rule again. Elikewela, Basnayaka Nilame, thru T.B.Nugawela- Diyawadane Nilame of Dalada Maligawa, complained to Kandy GA & ask how the procession is a problem to the mosque when the Christian church on the same street is not complaining. |
| 1912 | Arrogant British GA increase the limit from 50 to 100 yards | When Elikewela went to see Kandy GA to remind that they are breaking the promise of 5th chapter, 1815 Sinhala treaty, angry British GA extend the limit to 100 yrds. |
| 1912 | 15th April, Alcohol Act passes thru the council without any objections from the Sinhala rep | Sinhala rep, Christopher obeysekera, (grandfather of SWRD Bandaranayaka), remain silent. This act allows Bars being opened in front of Sri Maha Bodiya, and Beef, Mutton, Venison stalls being opened near Jethavanaramaya, Tuparamaya, RuwanveliMahaseya, mostly by the Muslims. |
| 1913 | British prohibit civil servants & village chiefs from joining the temperance movement | As it could affect the revenue, the civil servants had to get permission before joining, and village chiefs were banned from joining at all. |
| 1913 | Temperence society is a classic example of how British had successfully divided the society to their advantage | The few Non-Buddhists in the society do not want to criticise the Missionary. The Europeans didn't like public meetings or political demonstrations. Traditional elite do not want reforms to legistative council. Nationalists wanted only to place more reps in the council. But Buddhists were pushing for the ultimate all the way. They could go nowhere. |
| 1913 | "No one is complaining or unhappy in Lanka"-says British | Lack of one strong sentiment from the locals,enable the British to claim that Lanakans are happy the way the things are. |
| 1913 | Passing away of W.Harishchandra due to cancer | The man who gave leadership to the Buddhist revival and the socially-down Sinhalese masses while Sinhalese Headmen & chiefs assigned by the British, stayed neutral and silent despising the masses, passed away on 13th Sept. His leadership, though led to confrontations in 1903 Anuradapura riots and 1905 Udamaluwa incident, had awaken the masses and led to the survival of Anuradapura for the future generations. |
| 1914 | World War -1 starts: When Austria backed by Germany threatens Serbia, France & Britian support Serbia. | In 1914, Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria, was assassinated in Sarajevo, Serbia. Austria, backed by Germany, threatened Serbia. England and France announced their support for Serbia. Both sides mobilized, and on August 3, Germany declared war on France. Within a few days western Europe was engulfed in World War I or, as it was then known, the Great War. At first, Germany moved quickly into France, threatening to take Paris, but the French lines held and finally forced the Germans back. During the next four years the two sides held opposing lines of trenches, which stretched from the North Sea to Switzerland and moved hardly at all throughout the fighting. |
| 1914 | Nilame Elikewela goes to courts against the British GA- Sinhala rep in the council is totally silent AGAIN- But Buddhists win the case on 4th June | In the ongoing issue of the signboard put up by the mosque, after the limit was extended to 100 yrds by the arrogant British GA, He take the matter to courts. Christopher Obeysekera, ( Grandfather of SWRD Bandarsnayaka) sole Sinhala rep in the council, does not speak a word to defend the Buddhists. But Anagarika Darmapala, & Valisinghe Harischandra campaign hard. |
| 1914 | 14th June, British GA, supported by Muslim & Christian extremists, appeal against the ruling. | Many social, political & religiuos leaders of the minorities in Lanka, have developed the habit of uniting to despise Sinhala Buddhist rights. Unchallenged by the so-called Sinhala elite, they continue their mean onslaught against the Buddhists until their propaganda take firm root as nothing but the truth. |
| 1915 | Young Lanka League -1st radical group with a political programme for independence, But they forget to rally the upcountry Indian workers | Set up by A.E.Goonesinghe, whose lonely efforts for 12 years were hardly supported by any reformists or the elites or the National congress, the Young Lanka Leahue give leadership to the urban working class. They also form urban trade unions which made the British realized that the strikes & work-stoppages were becoming a reality. But the league did one fatal mistake. They forgot to unionise the Indian workers in the hill country. This left a vacuum for the selfish Indian Tamil leaders to group them seperately as an ethnic workers union. |
| 1915 | 2nd Feb- British GA in Kandy wins the appeal & overjoyed Muslim extremists harass Buddhists | 2nd February, the Supreme Court rules that the British-GA's rule of 100 yards no-noise zone around the mosque must stay. Such rulings give confidance to minorities to humiliate & despise the rights of the SInhalese. Jubiliant Muslims, humiliate Bikkus, attack 2 houses in Kurunegala & Polgahawela during Pirith & Dana ceremonies, & attack a few Sinhalese shops which were in business competition with Musilm traders. |
| 1915 | 27th Feb-British favouration let Muslims get away in the Telligamuwa attack by only advising them not to be violent again : helpless against continuing injustices & humiliation in their own country, Sinhalese anger and frustration begin to boil. | 27 th Feb- Muslim thugs assault the Buddhist Upasampada procession at TelliGamuwa. One monk is assaulted until he fell unconcious, a young Sinhalese who tried to protect the Samadi Budda statue is assaulted & Muslim thugs break the statue into pieces. In courts, Muslims lie that the procession made a big noise when passing a mosque while there wasn't even a mosque at that time in any of the places where the incidents took place. There was only a Muslim school in the village. Realising Muslims thuggery couldn't be justified, British ignores to investigate further. British as usual, stay lenient to Muslims. They only advise the Muslims not to be violent again. Then, British dismiss the case. But, helpless against continuing injustices & humiliation in their own country, Sinhalese anger and frustration begin to boil. |
| 1915 | 26th May- British orders even the Vesak "DanSela" at Dalada in Kandy to be cancelled following Muslim complains of loss of profits those nights | Sinhala traders in Kandy and the Kandyan Buddhist Association organised a Dansela for the 30th time. Muslim traders complained to the British that it was with the intention of closing their businesses. They also complain that they can otherwise earn a lot of business those nights. They also protest that the Dansela was only important for the Buddists, not the Muslims. British ordered to cancel the Dansela. Kandy municipal authority stated that "Muslims should not be suffering in business just because Buddhists celebrate Vesak and this decesion was taken for the economic reasons on behalf of the Muslims grievances". |
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1915 |
28th may- Overjoyed by British leniency, confident Muslim extremists abuse & attack Buddhists; Ambush of Buddhist pilgrims near the infamous mosque | Overjoyed & confident by the British leniency, Muslims thugs assault and insult many peaceful buddhist pilgrims who are visiting Kandy. The nightmail train to Kandy was full of Muslim thugs who start many quarrells with the youth of Sinhala families in the train. In Akurana, Muslim thugs threaten the Buddhists saying that your Dalada would be destroyed tonight. Some Buddhists were too frightened & went back home. British had assigned only 5 policemen on duty in Kandy. After midnight, a cart of Buddhist pilgrims were on their way back to Gampola. It is ambushed within 120 yards of the infamous mosque by the Muslim thugs. 16 year old A. Rathnayaka who later became a rep of the upcountry council, was one who survived the assault by hiding by the roadside. He witnessed everything in detail. He saw the mob assaulting even the children. Thugs burnt the cart. Within hours, angry Sinhala youths surround the mosque that night. Shots are fired at them from inside the mosque. Sinhala youthes storm the mosque. But they are controlled & stopped by the Sinhala elders and the police who arrived. In the morning the Sinhalese were seen attending to the wounded Muslims. Such was the SInhala Buddhist way. |
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1915 |
29th May-Sinhalese make a human shield around Dalada Medura as Muslim extremists protected by British threaten to destroy Dalada, & 10 years of Muslim provocations cause the riots. | Taking the threats made by the Muslim thugs seriuosly, angry Sinhalese gather around Dalada in Kandy to prevent any Muslim attack on Dalada. They believe that the British who had now displayed total leniency to Muslims, would do nothing to safeguard Dalada. Many Sinhalese swear to die protecting Dalada. Clashes occur between them & the Muslim thugs in Kandy. At 11 am on Dalada veediya, 200 meters from Dalada Maligawa Muslim thugs isolate & stab a 17 year old Sinhala youth dead. Then they rip the intestines out to generate fear among the Buddhist pilgrims. Police do not try to find the assasins. Instead police try to disperse the crowd of angry SInhalese by force. Sinhala elite join the police, requesting people to go home. Angry poeple find one Muslim thug who had killed 3 Sinhalaese, incl a baby and a Upasaka( a Buddhist practising Dasa-sil), and kill him. Several Muslim shops go up in flames in Kandy. Even some of the police gets assaulted. One British soldier is thrown into Kandy lake. In Denagama & Kosgoda, two "notorious" racist Brtish offcials get killed. |
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1915 |
Sinhala-Muslim riots -caused by the unpopular acts of the Moors that victimize Sinhalese; British take the side of the Moors & massacre many Sinhalese | On commemoration of 100 years since the Kandyan convention, the burning rift between the Sinhala & the newly migrated Moors from the Malabar coast in India ( who practised giving credit at unreasonable high rates, and who were very unpopular because of their competing tactics with the low country Sinhalese) brought them into conflict. British took the side of the Moors. British, treating it as an organized conspiracy against the crown, used forces to mercilessly crush it, killing many Sinhalese. British introduce new rules that give British officials freedom to commit hideous crimes against Sinhala civilians.Years long attempts by the few patriotic Sinhalese elite, to bring the injustices to the attention of London never worked. |
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1915 |
Sinhala rep in the Council speaks against the Sinhala while shocked Tamil rep & the respected European rep Harry Creasy speak on behalf of the Sinhala | S.C.Obeysekera who disliked any Sinhala uprising, and who was relieved to see the crushing of the rising Buddhist power, speak against the Sinhala. The Tamil rep, Ponnambalam Ramanathan & one of the respected European reps, Harry Creasy, mainly concerned with if the same state violence could be unleashed on their communities in the future, speak on behalf of the Sinhala & against the British for the cruelty and the new rules that gave some British officials freedom to commit hideous crimes against Sinahala civilians. |
| 1915 | 31st may-Riots spread to Colombo as Muslim traders raise prices ; Bikkus and Sinhala leaders stop every Sinhala reaction by the 1st june. In the real SInhala Buddhist way, temples become havens for displaced Muslims. | In response to the riots, Muslim traders who has near monopoly on the retail business on the common public, double their prices. Arguments between them and Sinhalese lead to further flare up. By noon clashes take place in Maradana, Slave island, and kotahena. Unhappy with the competitiveness of the Muslims, Christians support the Sinhalaese. But Bikkus and genuine Sinhala leaders manage to stop every Sinhala reaction by the 1st june. Again, showing the real SInhala Buddhist way, temples become havens for displaced Muslims. |
| 1915 | 31st May,1st June, Sinhala young men are requested by the Sinhala elderly to disperse | British close Bridges at Kelaniya and Moratuwa to stop Sinhala crowds advancing on the capital. |
| 1915 | 2nd June -German battleship come close to Ceylon- Frightened British arrest Lankans with German connections | Frightened British begin to crack down on Lankans with German connections. They arrest Albert Wijesekera, Bro-in-law of the British army officer Henry Pedris, whose family has many business contacts with Germany.(Incl a showroom in Munich) In prison, He dies of weakness caused by the lack of food. |
| 1915 | 2nd June-Martial law is introduced after the riots are over & British use the opportunity to massacre the known Sinhalese patriots | Calculating & deviuos British now move in, making maximum use of the opportunity, to assasinate all known genuine Sinhala patriots in the provincial towns and villages, under the cover of the riots. ( which had ended by the 1st June) Using Marati, Punjab,Tamil, Malay, & collaborating Sinhala troops, they kill, at will, any one on tips given by the local Muslims, village chiefs, Burghers & Catholics. Muslims use this opportunity to get rid of their local business rivals. Even Hiramanaya is declared an illegal weapon, as an desperate excuse to kill many patriots. Many who had hiramanaya in the kitchen are killed. In official records, 4885 Sinhalese are arrested. Of them, only 3573 are produced in courts. There is no record to say what happened to the balance 1312. Official British Army records show 66 Sinhalese were killed. Secret British police claim 107 Sinhalese were killed. British Govt claim that only 39 Sinhalese were killed. |
| 1915 | Sinhala villagers lose the house/land if they cant pay compensation to Muslims | British also recovers the compensation to Muslims from the Sinhala villages. If the villager cannot pay, they'd lose the land or the house. |
| 1915 | 2nd July- A "14 year old Tibet monk" witness rude treatment by British troops in arresting meditating Bikkus | British storm Rathgama Aranya to arrest Bikkus. Thero Gnanatilaka and four German tourists meditating in the Aranya, are arrested. A 14 year old young Tibet monk watches it. He will grow up, trying his best all his life, to get Sinhalese back on the track. He would be known as S. Mahinda thero. |
| 1915 | 2nd july -Henry Pedris, and two more Sinhala soldiers ( one is known only as a Samarasinghe from Matara, and second still unknown) refuse to shoot the Sinhala crowd & are arrested | Valentine Jayawardana, Eden Wlfred Jayawardana, Junius Clintus Jayawardana, 3 officers ( "Bappas" of J.R.Jayawardana who will ironically, without shame, declared open Henry Pedris statue on 7/7/78 on Isipatana Mw, Col-5 ) who were shooting the Sinhala crowd, arrested the British officer Henry Pedris, son of a successful business family. British imprisoned him in a dark cell in Magazine prison. Same day, British military court decided he must face the firing squad on the 8th. He listened to the verdict calmly, and asked for 5 requests. To see parents once, to offer a Ata-pirikara to a Bikku, to be shot by Punjab troops, to host a last-farewel party to the fellow officers in the armed forces, & finally to bury him in his family cemetary. British allow him only the 2nd & the 4th requests. |
| 1915 | 4th july-Mother collapses seeing Henry Pedris in the cell | visiting with the husband and the daughter, She is shocked to see the dirty clothes and the sorry state of her son who is locked in a dark cell like an animal. |
| 1915 | 6th July- School children come on to the streets asking for release of Henry Pedris | Students of Royal, St.Thomas, Ananda and many others are on the streets with black arm bands. That night S.L. Doubgin ( the Police chief) visited Magazine prison and instructed the prison officers to kill Pedris following morning without waiting for another 24 hrs. He said it was too risky to wait till the 6th. |
| 1915 | British conspiracy to assasinate Henry Pedris without waiting for the due date. | That night S.L. Doubgin ( the Police chief) visited Magazine prison and instructed the prison officers to kill Pedris following morning without waiting for another 24 hrs. He said it was too risky to wait till the 8th. |
| 1915 | " shoot, I'm ready, shoot" -7.28am on 7th july- Killing of Henry Pedris and the other two Sinhala soldiers : British refuse to hand over the body. | In the morning a prison official named Olnett opened the cell door, and grabbed Henry Pedris by the little beard and the chin & said " Lets go". When marched through the other arrested patriots, John de Silva ( tears flowing ), FR Senanayake placed his face on John De silva's shoulder and cry, AE Goonesinghe says "You are my hero" when Pedris passes him. 7.28am, he was seated on a chair in his army uniform. He refuses to bind his eyes as did Puran Appu, and says " shoot, I'm ready, shoot". Hearing the gun shots, DS Senanayake placed his head on AE Gonesinghe's lap and would not speak for hours. FR Senananyake cry holding the chest. Prison official Olnett says " there your Pedris was shot" as he walked pass with 2 more officials carrying the bloody chair, to John de Silva. As crowds gathered near the prison, the govt refused to honour his last request & the body disappear from the prison premises. Parents plead for the body. But they would not get the body. It is believed that the British secretly buried it somewhere in a cemetary using some faithful officials who remained tightlipped about the location. |
| 1915 | 9th July, R.A.Mirando, Sinhala Buddhist leader, is assasinated by the British officials | He was the one who had replaced the vacuum left by Henry Olcott giving leadership to ParamaVingnanarthaya, and fought to protect Buddhist schools. Police chief Daubgin badly wanted him. 8am in the morning, after his prayers at Fort Bodiya, he was walking to the office of ParamaVinganartha. A bullet fired by a Punjab soldier pierce his heart. Police chief Daubgin says that he was shot by robbers. |
| 1915 | Sinhala rep in the Council speaks against the Sinhala while shocked Tamil rep & the respected European rep Harry Creasy speak on behalf of the Sinhala | S.C.Obeysekera who disliked any Sinhala uprising, and who was relieved to see the crushing of the rising Buddhist power, speak against the Sinhala, while the Tamil rep Ponnambalam Ramanathan & one of the respected European reps Harry Creasy speak on behalf of the Sinhala & against the British for the cruelty and the new rules that gave some British officials freedom to commit hideous crimes against Sinahala civilians. |
| 1915 | "You may kill as many Sinhalese as you can now, but they will never forget this injustice."- Anagarika Darmapala | Darmapala writes from India where he is imprisoned by the British, " Sinhalese will rather die than living without Buddhism, You may kill as many Sinhalese as you can now, but they will never forget this injustice." |
| 1917 | Formation of Ceylon Reform Commission by Ponnambalam Arunachalam | This will play a key role within Ceylon National Congress, the Lankan counterpart of the Indian National Congress, pushing on nationalism. Both Sinhala & Tamil members accept him as the best person to lead. |
| 1917 | First idea of a Jewish state in Jerusalam | In 1917 British Foreign Secretary James Balfour issued a proclamation supporting the idea of a Jewish state in Palestine, a region recently liberated from the Ottoman Empire. The Balfour Declaration marks the beginning of modern Israel. After World War I ended in 1918, Jews began to migrate to Palestine, which was set aside as a British mandate with the approval of the League of Nations in 1922. |
| 1917 | Funny Family race between Bandaranayakes & Senanayakes ; Adds Comedy to the otherwise tragic tale of the Sinhalese | Bandaranayaka's claim owning 11,723 acres and Senanayakas claim having 6317 acres. The competition escalated as the children of Don Stept Senanayake entered St.Thomas college, Mt.Lavinia. Proud Bandaranayakas do not want their children be educated in the same level. So they get their son withdrawn from St.Thomas, & bring down a tutor from UK. This resident tutor teaches young Bandaranayaka at Horagolla Walavva. |
| 1918 | Ceylon National Congress ; British start thinking about ways to destroy this new Sinhala-Tamil alliance | This was formed as a dream of Ponnambalam Arunachalam, who sees national unity & racial harmony in a free Lanka. But he fails to see the different fractions with different aims in it. Nationalists, Constitutionalists, radicals- all having lines drawn on what they want. this weakness gives the British the chance to destroy it. Also British badly want to destroy this new Sinhala-Tamil alliance which is very unhealthy for them. |
| 1919 | Sinhala Mahajana Sabha by Ceylon National Congress - 1st opportunity for peasants to be part of the political activity | Ceylon National congress set up a network of local sabhas involving farmers in rural areas, & connect with the ayurveda doctors, teachers, traders who could get membership. |
| 1919 | First British tactic to weaken the Ceylon National Congress. British don’t grant state funds or expertise to Minneriya Development co | Minneriya Development co, is formed to develop agriculture in Polonnaruwa. British don’t grant state funds or expertise. It was formed by a group of capitalists. But they fail. Sinhala Maha Sabha step in to salvage the operation. British don’t grant funds or help with the expertise. The lack of funds, technical skills, & management skills, halts the projects & it become unsuccessful. It was the first British tactic to weaken the Ceylon National Congress. |
| 1920 | Second British tactic to destroy the Ceylon National Congress : by winning the Kandyans away from the congress. British use selfish and short-sighted Kandyans weaknesses. | British decided that the Kandyans, with their high ego & the ignorance, were the best to manipulate. Taking advantage on Kandyan fears that they were so far behind in every aspect, including trade, wealth, and civil service, than the low-countrymen, and the Kandyan fears that constitutionalists, including the Tamils, will oneday threaten the traditional power of the Kandyan Chiefs, British Governer Sir Willaim Manning detached Kandyan support away from the National congress. |
| 1920 | Third British tactic to destroy the Ceylon National Congress : End of the One-to-One ratio in the council : The harmony between Tamils & Sinhalese elite is broken by the British | In a classic move, British increased the reps positions in the council for Sinhalese to 13 & for the Tamils to 2, based on ethnic population ratios. Unhappy Tamil elite, who are used to 1-to-1 mentality, demanded for previous one-to-one ratio. The Sinhala memebers of the Ceylon National Congress decided not to support Tamils demands for 1-to-1. Tamils broke away from the congress. This included a reluctant Ponnambalam Arunachalam, who though not a racist, was pressurized by the Tamil elite as a leader, to persue the Tamil minority cause seperately. Suddenly he decided to speak against the constitutional reforms, fearing the transfer of power to Sinhalese. |
| 1920 | No of Govt schools is 919 & Christian schools 2122 | |
| 1921 | Tamil settlements on east are limited to only the coast. | Official British sensus reports indicate that almost all Tamil settlements on the east coast do not even spread more than 10 miles to the interior. |
| 1921 | Proof that Batticaloa was under Kandy & Sinhalese once dominated the region | S.G.Canagaratnam, chief Mudalier of Eastern Province writes in official memo that Batticaloa belong to Kandy kingdom. He notes with sadness the diminishing Sinhala population there, who once flourished in populated villages. He mentions of many Sinhala ruins mainly in the West & south of the district. |
| 1921 | Lanka Population is 4.5 million | |
| 1923 | Fourth British tactic to destroy the Ceylon National Congress : British inspires Kandyan elite to think as a separate race ; Short-sighted Kandyan elite form Kandyan National Assembly to seek a separate state in Lanka with gross disregard to the fate of the Sinhalese in other parts of the country. It also give Tamil elite ideas of seperate state. | The Kandyan guerilla wars against the British were the last military campaigns of the Sinhalese. They were planned & fought mainly by the people of Sinhala military ancestry. Due to their constant resistance against the invaders and the collaborators, they had run into fatal confrontations with British made village chiefs. Having lost to the superior power, they have now ended up being poor & low-casted by the village chiefs. Some Kandyan elite make use of the heroism of these people to claim that the Kandyans are superior. They insist that Kandyan race must be represented seperately in the legistative assembly to safeguard their separate & distinct identity. It was only an attempt by the selfish elite to establish power over Kandyan people with gross disregard to the fate of the Sinhalese in other parts of the country. It also gave Tamil elite to think about re-establishing the seperate rebel kingdom in Jaffna. The Kandyan chiefs competition against the Karawe cast, who lived mainly in the low-country, was another reason to think seperately. British helps the foolish Kandyans to develop these ideas of seperatism in order to stop Lankans getting united. |
| 1926 | "You rule there, We rule over here": Kandyan elite publicly claim they are relatives of the Jaffna elite | T.Panabokke & A.Moonemalai, two Kandyan elite say that the Kandyans are relatives of the Tamil elite in the north. Such foolish public statements further strengthen Tamil elite thinking " You rule there, We rule over here" |
| 1927 | First request for a federal state of regional autonomy.- who ? By the Kandyan elite ! | Kandyan National Assembly officially ask for a separate federal state with regional autonomy at the Donoughmore commission. |
| 1927 | Land Commission - lending land to peasants to cultivate will generally fail ; But it was the first major colonial policy change on agriculture. | Crown land is lent to peasants who are not authorised to sell or lease them. They can pass the lease on to a heir. But the insufficient support of the infrastructure development, specially in the dry zone, make it a failed project in many areas. It works in some parts of the down south. |
| 1927 | A.E. Goonesighe organises Colombo Harbour Strike | British govt is forced to recognize the workers unions as working class come to the streets. |
| 1927 | Colombo tramways strike | |
| 1929 | Attempt to destroy the sacred Bo-tree | A mentally sick person try to destroy the tree on 30th July, He was stopped after cutting a branch. |
| 1930 | No of Govt schools is 2122 & Christian schools is 2502 | |
| 1930 | Newstead college-Negombo ask a Sinhala student to change from Sinhala to Latin | In the 1930s, Newstead College in Negombo wanted Dr. Wimala de Silva to transfer from Sinhala to Latin. Her father, an ayurvedic physician, stated firmly that his daughter could study any subject she chose, but ‘Wimala must not give up Sinhala’. She went on to study English and Sinhala both at the university. |
| 1930 | Leadership of the Tamil elite goes to extremists who seek nothing but seperatism | Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan dies in 1930. New hot blood like G.G.Ponnambalam ( who will replace Ponnambalam Ramanathan as the new Tamil leader ) impress the crowd with radical hardline speeches. They get leadership of the Tamil community through racist speeches. Moderate Tamils have no say or no other leadership to gather under. |
| 1931 | Lanka Population is 5.31 million ; Over-population in South West | The migration to Colombo cause over-population in the south west, where over 30 % of the Lankan population is living by now |
| 1931 | British offer freebees to Indian Tamil immigrants, refuse to offer the same to Lankan working class | Free travel, medical facility, housing, schools, meals for children are provided. When Sinhala politicians like D.S.Senanayake ask for the same privilidge for the Lankan working class, British say that it was the Indian govt that forced them to do these at an unbearable cost. |
| 1931 | Most remarkable study on colonial affairs of the 20th century-Donoughmore Commission; is opposed by minorities | The Donoughmore report is opposed both by the Muslims and Tamils as it can lead to future Sinhalese majority rule. Sir Ponnambalam Ramanathan campaigns both in Colombo & in London, T.B.Jayah in Colombo for Muslims. |
| 1931 | First Asian country to enjoy universal Sufferage | As recommended by the Donoughmore commission, both males & females over 21 will get eligibility to vote. |
| 1931 | Tamil extremists boycott State Council election in protest to Donoughmore commission | Jaffna Youth League, comprising teachers and students, campaign hard for a separate sub-kingdom in Jaffna. They decided to boycott the election in a meeting attended by south Indian politician Kamaladevi Chattopadhya. Tamil moderates are helpless to stand against them. |
| 1931 | Desperate British decides to recognize responsibility to look after Buddhism to keep Sinhalese happy | British who are worried about how long they could exploit Lanka, decide to recognise & take over supervision & administration of Buddhist temples & monuments. |
| 1932 | Drepression hits Lanaka for 2 years | Export revenue is reduced by half ( as overseas consumer markets are hit with depression ), 9000 Lankans & 84,000 lose jobs, over 100,000 Indians go back to India. Retrenchments in whitecollar jobs increase. Things will be bad for 2-3 years until the exports start to make profit again. |
| 1933 | Great Royal Alms-hall is discovered | Among the ruins covered in the jungle, archeologists identify the Royal alms-hall that fed over 8000 monks and many civilians daily. |
| 1935 | Birth of Indian Tamil Plantation Workers political unity ; Natesa Iyer open a trade union among the Indian Tamils | Nadesa Iyer opens a trade union among the Indian Tamil plantation workers. Lankan Trade union had neglected having control on the leadership of these workers in their union. Nadesa Iyer is a colleague of A.E. Goonesingh's trade unions. He had learnt the subject through his experience. He become the leader of the plantations Indian workers. This creates a gap between them and the Indian plantation workers who will go & remain on a path of ethnic interests.They are, even today. |
| 1938 | G.G.Ponnambalam ask for 50-50 representation | His unfair demand of representation of 50-50 for 30% of minorities & 70 % majority, is rejected by the British who want to keep Sinhalese happy. |
| 1939 | World War-2 starts ; It will end in 1945 | |
| 1940 | RuwanVeliMahaSeya restoration completed: It has taken 47 years. Still it is smaller than the original. | 17th June, a 25 ft tall golden pinnacle and crystal is placed on the stupa. Stupa covers 5 acres but still smaller in diameter 300ft from original 370 ft. Height is 350 ft, which is smaller again. |
| 1941 | Lanka become main Rubber supplier to Allied forces | As Dutch East Indies & Malaysia is lost, Ceylon is the main supplier of Rubber. But Lankans do not get the full benefit as the British collect the profit. |
| 1942 | Colombo university- the 1st in Lanka | Colombo university- the 1st university in Lanka after nearly half a decade of requests |
| 1943 | State Council decides to use Sinhala and Tamil equally ; Tamils get to work in own language, but adds on to the 50-50 mentality. | State Council resolved that the business of State Council should be conducted in Sinhala and Tamil. They also decided that both Sinhalese and Tamil be made compulsory subjects in all public examinations. While it give Tamils who are only 10% of Lankan population, their rights to work in own language, it also gives Tamil extremists another boost of 50-50 mentality. |
| 1943 | Sinhalese and Tamil are made the medium of all schools. | In 1943, acting on the unanimous recommendation of the Special Committee on Education, State Council resolved that Sinhalese and Tamil be made the medium of in all schools. It reached 8th standard in 1956, Ordinary Level in 1958, and Advanced Level in 1960. From 1961, University education was in Swabhasha. |
| 1945 | World War-2 which started in 1939, end in 1945 | America emerges as a new powerful super power while Britain and France try to keep their status. |
| 1946 | Public exams call for a pass in Sinhala OR Tamil | the Ceylan Civil Service examination, the General Clerical Examination, the Police Probationers exam, English Teachers Certificate exam and the Senior School Certificate exam, called for a pass in Sinhala or Tamil. |
| 1947 | British announce fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth | D.S.Senanayake ( who impressed the British with his display of loyalty and 100% coorporation during the WorldWar -2 ) & Sir Oliver Goonetileke who handled all the negotiaitons in London, wins their 2 year campaigne for independence, finally. |
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1947 |
G.G.Ponnambalam's Tamil congress join UNP - a party that is freely open to minorities to exploit or to participate | G.G.Ponnambalam's Tamil congress join UNP - a party that is freely open to minorities to exploit or to participate. As a sign of trusting D.S.Senanayake's concerns for minorities & his vision of a mixed state-power & politics irrespective of race & religion, they joined UNP. But the Tamil extremists will leave in one year, forming the Tamil Federal party. |
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1947 |
90 years after the Bloody rebellion, British are pressurized to grant independence to India - result of relentless & wise campaigns by the elite, intensity and frequency of which the British found difficult to cope with | On August 15, 1947, India ceased to be a part of the British Empire and became a united sovereign state. In the words of Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of the new nation: “At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.” Independence was the conclusion of a struggle dating back at least as far as the outbreak of the bloody Indian Mutiny in 1857. By the early 20th century, India had developed an organized, highly articulate Indian nationalist movement, embodied in the Indian National Congress and other groups. World War II, mass expressions of protest through civil disobedience, and even the enlistment of Subhas Chandra Bose’s Indian National Army on the Japanese side, increased expectations among Indians that British India would soon win its freedom. From 1942 the British government was prepared to promise eventual independence in return for cooperation in the war effort. Mohandas Gandhi, one of the principal fighters for an independent India, had made non-violent struggle the centre of his political philosophy. Although he, and secular nationalists such as Nehru, sought to unite Hindu and Muslim Indians, religious tensions, sometimes erupting in bloody sectarian strife, increased, and demands by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and others for a separate Muslim state gained strength. On August 15 it was not one but two states that came into being, as the north-western and north-eastern parts of the subcontinent, containing substantial Muslim populations, were separated off to form Pakistan. This partition was to result in horrific massacres of Hindu and Muslim refugees as the two communities migrated to follow the new borders, and the first Indo-Pakistan War broke out soon after over the status of Kashmir. |
| 1948 | Sept'48- Education bill is approved & Rural kids get access to education | Abolishing of school fees, Grants to all schools stopped & the beginning of state run schools create an avenue of advancements for the rural kids. |
| 1948 | Tamil hardliners leave Tamil congress to form the more racist Tamil Federal party - who will introduce the concept of separate state in 3 years | in 1947, G.G.Ponnambalam's Tamil congress joined the UNP - a party that is freely open to minorities to exploit or to participate. As a sign of trusting D.S.Senanayake's concerns for minorities & his vision of a mixed state-power & politics irrespective of race & religion, they joined UNP. But the Tamil extremists will leave in one year, forming the Tamil Federal party. in 3 years it was this party that introduced the concept of separate state |
| 1948 | British leaves after creating Israel in the middle of Arab states | In 1948 Britain withdrew from the region, leaving an independent Jewish state surrounded by hostile Arab neighbours. War followed immediately, ending with an uneasy truce in 1949. During the next 25 years Israel fought three more wars: the Sinai campaign (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), and the Yom Kippur War (1973), winning all and expanding its territory each time. |
| 1951 | Most important relic ever found from a dagaba | partlky crumbled Mihindu Seaya in Mihintale was covered in jungle. During the process of clearing the jungle, a relic casket made of a polished black unknown material that hasn't been found from nowhere else in the world, was unearthed from the inside chamber. Inside the relic were beads, trinkets & ash, believed to be Mihindu theros. The temple owns it today. |
| 1951 | Formation of SLFP - attracted the Buddhists who are now sick of trusting the minority traitors who take advantage of any free open system like UNP, to achieve their unreasonable demands. | Disagreements between D.S.Senanayaka & SWRD Bandaranayaka made the latter to resign & form this new party. Centuries of discrimination and neglect has caused so much of resentment among Sinhala Buddhsits, school teachers, Ayurvedic doctors, and Bikkus, who were looking for a stronger stance on the guarantee of survival of the majority. SLFP attracted the Buddhists who are now sick of trusting the minority traitors who take advantage of any free open system like UNP, to achieve their unreasonable demands. UNP failed to publicly announce their stance on the rights of the Sinhalese and also to curb the unreasonable demands of the minorities. |
| 1951 | First claim of a separate Tamil state is introduced by Tamil federal party. | At the 1st National convention of the Tamil Federal party, the theme is introduced for the 1st time. This is the beginning of the extremist Tamil propaganda of being a distinct nation with a separate historic path. |
| 1952 | University of Peradeniya | |
| 1952 | July,52- Death of D.S,Senanayake | who falls off the horse at Galleface green. |
| 1953 | Dependance on export economy brings disaster after the end of Korean war ; Economic downturn | An economy that depends on exports, is vulnerable to the world market prices. When end of Korean war brought the rubber prices down, the govt couldn't offer the subsidies it used to provide to the public. This led to an increase of food & clothing prices & work stoppages and strikes. |
| 1955 | "Consume the fruit without planting the tree and nurturing it"-even after independence, the ruling elite refuses to have the correct vision. They live beyond the means of the country, at the expense of the future. Their policies protect their positions & wealth. | The elite give priority to maintaining their social status over National strategies to develop the country and the people with honesty & sincerity. Living within the means does not become a national economic virtue. As the late Joan Robinson, the famous Cambridge economist observed, as long ago as the 1950s, socially and economically strong Lankans, were people who wanted to consume the fruit without planting the tree and nurturing it. They led lifestyles quite inconsistent with the national income at the expense of the development of the land and the people. Thus, Lanka continue to be one of the poorest nations in the world, though a ruling class lives as if Lanka was a rich country. |
| 1955 | India introduce rules to stop Tamil Seperatism in South India | Responding to vigorous campaigns in South iNdia for Tamil Separate state, Nehru introduces the 16th amendment forcing govt officials to take an oath to uphold sovereignty & integrity of India. This prevents treachery by the Tamil govt officials. But the dreaming continues. |
| 1955 | Lanka is admitted to United Nations | |
| 1956 | Feb- UNP promises Sinhala to be the official language to win the election over the new SLFP | in order to win people, UNP also plays the language issue, losing the support of the extremist Tamil leaders. But UNP failed to win the Sinhala people who were already with the SLFP. SLFP has won people by putting it first. |
| 1956 | Landslide victory for SLFP against a weak Sir John Kotalawala's UNP | |
| 1956 | First major ethnic riots of post-colonial Lanka : Tamil extremists unleash violance in the North & East. Army experience thier first encounter with Tamil militancy. | All minorities see at least some point in the Sinhala only act as a way to correct an injustice which is 400 years old. But led by extremist Tamil leaders, Tamil thugs go on rampage in the north & the east, killing many Sinhalese. Army is deployed in the north & east to control the violance. News about Tamil racist attacks in the north are suppressed by the authorities for the fear of reprisals in the south. Lankan army Soldiers complain of having been fired at by Tamil militants. The authorities ignores the complaints. |
| 1956 | In August in Trincomalee, Tamil demands are outlined. | Autonomy for the north & east, parity of status to Sinhala & Tamil languages, Satisfactory solution to the Indian Tamil problem are outlined at a convebtion in Trinco. |
| 1956 | Anglo-French realization that they are no longer super-power of the West in the Suez crisis ; America make them feel their status as a super power | Despite worldwide condemnation, Britain and France refused to back down, and began landing troops in the Suez Canal Zone on November 5. After early military successes, the operation became untenable when Britain especially found itself in an economic crisis at home. The value of the British pound plummeted, and the closure of the Canal created an oil crisis. USA make the opportunity to point out who is stronger. Dwight D. Eisenhower, the United States President, refused to help the British, until the UN resolutions were respected. The day after it began, the Anglo-French invasion of the Suez Canal region was halted. Britain and France grudgingly accepted the UN resolutions, and pulled their forces out in early December 1956. The Suez Crisis was over, but it had lasting consequences. Eden’s career was destroyed, and he resigned soon after. The global community had been shown that the day of the colonial European great powers was over; the new masters of the post-war world were the superpowers. |
| 1956 | Sinhala medium goes upto grade 8. | In 1943, on the unanimous recommendation of the Special Committee on Education, State Council resolved that Sinhalese and Tamil be made the medium of in all schools. It reached 8th standard in 1956, Ordinary Level in 1958, and Advanced Level in 1960. From 1961, University education was in Swabhasha. |
| 1956 | Commission on higher Education recommends teaching of advance level in Sinhala to stop Sinhala becoming a dead language. | The 1956 Commission on Higher Education had pointed out that 92% of the population could not study beyond the 8th standard, because the rest of the education was in English. They also show that science and other modern subjects could be taught in Sinhala. They also emphasize that Sinhala should not be a dead language. |
| 1957 | July- the Banda-Chelva pact- In order to solve the problem of Tamil leaders refusing to back down on racial demands, S.W.R.D. Bandaranayaka negotiates compromisations with Chelvenayagam of Tamil Federal party. Under pressure, he agrees to unreasonable demands. Tamil racist demands thrive on loudness of their propaganda & the silence of the opposition to it. | SWRD Bandaranayaka continues to negotiate with the Tamil federal party. He seeks compromisation on unreasonable Tamil racist demands. Under criticism from many quarters about the way he implemented drastic changes previous year, he gives in to several unreasonable Tamil demands, 1. Tamil to be the official language for administration purposes in the north & the east ( which will force other communities living in the area to work in Tamil). 2. Instead of Federalism, greater powers to regional councils, ( which included totally unnecessary powers to be centralized jeopadising national security & one area receiving an unfair attention, & also can lead to Tamil separatist rule ) 3. Colonisations in North & east to be restricted so that Tamils will continue to be the majority there ( which discriminate other communities in Lanka as no one else talks about being the majority anywhere else). When this Banda-Chelvenayagam Pact is published, the public protests at the way the Tamil demands leads to racial seperation and one community having more rights & powers than the rest of the communities. |
| 1957 | British finally pulls out of the military bases in Lanka | |
| 1957 | "Seruvila Sacred Bo-tree" planted by king Devanampiyatissa, fall into hands of Mallikativu village committee | The site of the Lanka's SECOND-most sacred bo tree in Seruvila is owned by the village committee under village committee ordinance. Under their protection, the tree will disappear by 1977 without a trace. Today a Hindu kovil has replaced the Bo-tree. It will be the most important known loss of Sinhala heritage at the hands of Tamil racists. |
| 1958 | May- Publication of Banda-Chelva pact cause protests & protests cause riots as Tamil extremists attack Sinhalese in the North & East. Army Soldiers who are deployed, are fired at by Tamil militants again. The authorities ignores it. | Elements from all over including members of UNP, SLFP both come out protesting. They criticise giving-in to unreasonable demands just because the big noise Tamil racist leaders make & just because other communities dont come up with such demands. Bikkus perform Satyagraha on streets. Riots break out against the protestors in the North. Violent Tamil racist attacks massacre Sinhalese in the North & East. News about Tamil racist attacks in the north are suppressed for the fear of reprisals in the south. Lankan army is again deployed both in the North & the East to bring civil order. Again, soldiers complain of having been fired at by Tamil militants. The authorities ignores the complaints again. |
| 1958 | August- Tamil language provision act is introduced, giving reasonable use of Tamil in N&E for Admin purposes. But Tamil leaders refuse to give up their unreasonable demands. | It provides reasonable use of Tamil for administration purposes. But Tamil leaders who thrived on seperatism, are not satisfied. The Tamil leaders resolution to stick with hardline separatism policy scares Sinhalese more than others. It will take another 8 years before the parliament actually approve even this due to opposition to it by the Tamil extremist MPs & some extremist Sinhala MPs. |
| 1958 | " Please take your share & depart"- Abu Dhabi - a classic example of economic exploitation and Arab nationalism - Sheikh Shakhbut's resistance demonstrated Arab pride and nationalism. | Abu Dhabi provides a classic example of the way that economic exploitation and Arab nationalism coming together. This desert state on the Arabian peninsula granted a concession in 1939, stipulating that the sheikh would receive 7 US cents per barrel if oil was discovered. In 1958 a consortium of companies struck oil. In a short time, thousands of people migrated to the tiny country seeking jobs; they soon outnumbered the indigenous population by 2:1. The ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Shakhbut, was distraught. The newcomers would destroy traditional ways. Incomers asked him to establish a post office, and he refused, declaring that the country had done well without one. The oil consortium, embarrassed by their low payments to the sheikh, urged him to accept an equal share of the profits. He replied that he wished they would simply take their 50 per cent of the oil and depart, leaving his in the ground. In 1965 other members of the ruling family persuaded him to accept the new agreement. But Sheikh Shakhbut's resistance demonstrated Arab pride and nationalism. |
| 1958 | Sinhala medium goes upto grade 10. | In 1943, on the unanimous recommendation of the Special Committee on Education, State Council resolved that Sinhalese and Tamil be made the medium in all schools. It reached 8th standard in 1956, Ordinary Level in 1958, and Advanced Level in 1960. From 1961, University education was in Swabhasha. |
| 1959 | Assasination of S.W.R.D.Bandaranayake | By an disillussioned bikku, with the mastermind being the most powerful political bikku of the times. This mastermind Bikkku was the one who helped Bandaranayaka to come to power in 1956. This eliminated the left wingers from the Bandaranayaka's govt. |
| 1959 | Age of voting is lowered to 18 from 21 | |
| 1960 | World's 1st woman prime minister | |
| 1960 | Sinhala medium goes upto grade 12 | In 1943, on the unanimous recommendation of the Special Committee on Education, State Council resolved that Sinhalese and Tamil be made the medium of in all schools. It reached 8th standard in 1956, Ordinary Level in 1958, and Advanced Level in 1960. From 1961, University education was in Swabhasha. |
| 1961 | January- Mrs Bandaranaika breaks the promise to allow Tamil racist demands of Tamil Federal Party after winning the election. Instead, she implement Sinhala Only act. This allows Tamil racists to scare the Tamil moderates about Sinhalese domination | In order to get their support to win the election, she had promised to Tamil Federal party that she will implement the Banda-Chelva pact. That promise led to Federal party joining SLFP. This enabled the SLFP to come to power beating the UNP. But once in power, she changed her mind. It is probably either she lied to Federal party OR, she was only fully briefed about the long term consequences of the unreasonable demands of the pact, only after coming to power. It is probably true that she took feedback from both the few Sinhala extremists AND the wise people who pointed out the extremism of the Tamil aspirations. She therefore take a hard stand & decided to implement the "Sinhala only" act in Administration of Lanka. |
| 1961 | Tamil retalliate with civil disobedience campaign in the North & the east. | State of emergency declared in these areas. |
| 1961 | Turning of Catholic resentment into a hatred ; All schools financed by the Govt are taken over by the state ; Subsequent failure of the system due to the incompetancy & mismanagement, enable the Catholic extremists to blame all the following problems in Lanka on such corrections of injustices. | All schools financed by the Govt are taken over by the state. This lead to some controlling of the missionary exploitation & conversions. But angers Hindus, Muslims, Christians. Only a few schools will continue with their own funds. But they fail to view it as something the Colonial rulers had established for the destabilisation of the society. But the govt's failure in administration incompetence & economic failure does nothing to silence the critics. Pointing out the failures and the collapse of the system due to these incompetancy & mismanagement, Catholic extremists will easily blame all the following problems in Lanka on such corrections of injustices. |
| 1961 | Sinhala medium goes upto the university. | In 1943, on the unanimous recommendation of the Special Committee on Education, State Council resolved that Sinhalese and Tamil be made the medium of in all schools. It reached 8th standard in 1956, Ordinary Level in 1958, and Advanced Level in 1960. From 1961, University education was in Swabhasha. |
| 1962 | Military Coup of the Catholics | |
| 1963 | current Koneswaram temple was first consecrated in 1963 | The date of original Koneswaram temple is recorded in a Tamil poem by Kavi Rajavarothiar as being 1589 BC. King Kulakottan, a South Indian prince rebuilt and enlarged this temple in the 5th century AD. Fort Frederick, where the temple is situated, was built with sculptured stones and pillars of the Koneswaram temple in 1624 AD, after the temple was demolished by the Portuguese commander Constantine de Sa. The current Koneswaram temple was first consecrated in 1963, about three hundred and thirty nine years after its destruction. |
| 1964 | Sirima - Shastri pact- one of the successful deeds | She & Bahadur Shastri, prime miniter of India, agrees on 525,000 indian Tamils going back to India, and 300,000 being absorbed into Lanka. |
| 1964 | SLFP loses Both Tamil allies Tamil Federal party & Ceylon Workers Congress to UNP | CWC led by S.Thondaman, for the 1st time since 1947 joined the UNP. SLFP is now unpopular among the Catholics, Tamils, Muslims ( by failing to pass legislation on quasis a system of courts for Muslims in marriages and divorces). |
| 1964 | The Trinco Bo tree, last remaining item from the ancient Gokanna viharaya in fort Frederick, Trinco, is destroyed completely by unidentified people. | The Bo tree in front of the Hindu kovil, disappear and the site is covered by a cemented platform today. It is the last remining item from the ancient Gokanna viharaya built by king Mahasen in 280 AD. It was destroyed by the Portugese to build the fort Frederick & the incident was recorded by portugese historian De Queyros. |
| 1965 | UNP comes to power with the help of minorities ( Minorities fail to realize that this was a delicate period of transition where the injustices to the Sinhalese are slowly corrected, and the competition is not as easy as it used to be under the British. They are made to feel insecure by their own leaders). | But the minorites fail to notice the free-for-all system the predominantly Sinhala governments were trying hard to create. It was not an easy task for the Governments to correct the colonial injustice done on the Sinhalese and at the same time to make the minorities who had enjoyed better at the expense of the Sinhalese, happier. Though the governments were mainly Sinhalese, they made sure that the system was open for all minorities to compete. But the minorities are NOT used to competing with the Sinhalese, mainly because the Sinhalese were not able to compete before. The minorities never had to compete with the Sinhalese masses before. The Colonial rulers, by suppression of the Sinhalese masses, had made it easy for the minorites to compete. This had enabled the minorities to reach heights that they would otherwise find not very easy to reach. But the minority leaders hide this fact from the minorities. Instead they genearte fear & insecurity in the minds of their community about the Sinhalese. This fear & insecurity prompts the minorities to keep those who make the biggest noise as their leaders. |
| 1965 | March-Dudley Senanayake & Chelvanayagam pact is signed ( Enhancing on Banda-Chlva pact, and giving in to more unreasonable racist demands of Tamils) UNP MPs themselves stand against the racist demands & it get cancelled in 3 years. | 1. Tamil is the official lang in the N&E, 2.Tamils can do business in Tamil anywhere in the country 3. Legal proceedings in courts in the N&E in Tamil 4. Land in N&E to be given only on priority of, first to landless in the district, then to landless in the N&E, then to other Lankans, with preference to Tamils again. NO SINHALESE ASKed FOR THE SAME FOR THE SOUTH. There is strong opposition to it by the UNPers themselves. They point out that it is not only racist, but it can also lead to Tamils drifting to seperatism. The truth see it being not implemented. The bill gets cancelled within 3 years. |
| 1968 | UNP cancel the Dudley-Chelva pact | There is strong opposition to it by the UNPers themselves. They point out that it is not only racist, but it can also lead to Tamils drifting to seperatism. The truth see it being not implemented. The bill gets cancelled within 3 years. |
| 1970 | Branches of the second Sri Maha Bodi is cut against protests to PM sirimavo, Min. of cultral affars, GA Trinco, Commissioner of Archeology. | Against protests by the chief priest of the Seruvila Vihara and the All ceylon Buddhist congress, the ministry of posts & telecommunications under C.Kumarasuriyar, go ahead to cut branches of the tree under the pretext of providing telephone line to the residence of Muttur M.P., Mr.Thangadorai. Desperate protests to PM Sirimavo, Min. of cultral affairs, GA Trinco, Commissioner of Archeology fail to protect it. |
| 1971 | Biggest revolt by the youth in the recorded Lankan history ; caused by the Ignored problems of the capable & daring Sinhalese youth | The ignorance of those who are responsible to attend the problems of the capable & daring Sinhalese youth, enable JVP leadership to recruit support for a marxist rebellion. Unable to understand neither the root cause of youth unrest nor the culprits of the rebellion, the government kills over 20,000 Sinhalese young men & women who were mostly innocent. In the most dangerous development, The govt discovers the power of emergency regulations & how it can be used to silence the critics. |
| 1971 | SLFP govt of inefficiency, curruption, and incapable officials, struggles with economy ; giving Tamil extremists & Catholics the chance to severely critisize the post-colonial changes | Inefficiency, curruption, lack of correct people with the vision, makes the economy worse. Rice porduction which just picked up by 1970 was on decline again due to the poor administration base, Govt monopolised the food distribution to avoid catastrophy. Imports become too costly. The lack of foreign exchange makes it difficult to buy imports. That meant lack of luxury goods, bread etc. This helps Catholics, Burghers & Tamil extremists to critisize the correction of injustices after the British left. |
| 1971 | A Hindu Kovil is built right next to the sacred Bo tree in Seruvila. | Assistant commissioner of Archeology, M.H.Sirisoma, visits the Bo-tree & finds a wall built around the land & a Hindu kovil being built on the adjoining land. This is 6 years before the tree disappear. |
| 1972 | First Stubborn action of Lankan govt - Increasing the term from 5 to 7& misuse of admn power for political purposes begins | Unprecedented in the history of constitution-making in any democratic modern state, the Lankan Govt uses it's overwhelming superiority in the Parliament to extend the period of power from 5 to 7. It would be the first act of more daring acts to follow. Then the power of the Judiciary to hear the appeals against mala-fide administration decisions, is drastically reduced. This lead to the state machinary being used against political opponents. |
| 1972 | Misuse of Govt power become large scale : As the Govt was going in the wrong path, the Tamil youth's dream of an armed struggle, began to attract support from even the moderate Tamil Nationalists. | Blind by the new discovered power of the SLFP government after 1971, acquisition of land, houses, shops, vehicles is carried out to victimize opponents. Freedom of press is lost due to crafty means ( govt control the allocation of newsprint), govt control the broadcasting as well, Public meetings arew banned under emergency regualations, Discrimination on political grounds become a standard tactics that no one can speak against, Politicisation of the public service run down to even the lowest levels of the machinery. State resources are blatantly used, incl staff, for political work. Appointments & decisions are made on political and personal connections, leading to corruption & Inefficiency. |
| 1973 | Largest crowd ever gathered todate in Lanka - Funeral of Dudley Senanayake | He died on 13th April, Funeral was on the 21st April, nearly half the population in Lanka paid him last respect. |
| 1975 | Robert McNamara marvels at Anuradapura | Ex-US Secretary of Vietnam War fame, Robert Mcnamara, one of the creators of the World Bank, while visiting Anuradapura, claim that the civilization of the the Sinhalese must be much , much older than 2500 years to be able to achieve that kind of technological and philosophical expertise. |
| 1977 | April - SVJ Chelvanayagam fell ill & died. | |
| 1977 | Seruvila Bo tree disappears with the stone pillars around it : the most important heritage lost, out of all the 237 identified ancient Buddhist temples in the N&E | Trinc GA who visit the place find both the tree and the pillars had disappeared and a new Hindu kovil was being built on the land despite another Hindu kovil being on the adjoining land. That was the end of the second most sacred Bo tree in Lanka. It was the most important heritage lost, out of all 237 ancient Buddhist temples the British archeologists had found in the north and the east. |
| 1978 | New Constitution recognised Tamil as a national language & Indian Tamil recognition | It keeps Sinhala as the sole official language. It abolished the distinction between citizens by descent, thus removing the claim that indian Tamils are treated as 2nd class citizens.TULF stay away from these constitution changes as it has promised it's youth to stick on to the path to Eelam. |
| 1978 | Budda Statue in Sembimalai temple, near Kuchchaveli disappears & a Hindu kovil is built on the temple site. Statue will be recovered by some soldiers. | 8 feet tall statue of the ancient temple dated back to 280 BC, disappears after the Trinco-GA's visit in early october. There were marks to show that it has been dragged down the precipice.( Fortunately it was recovered 6 miles away later. As Govt officials are inactive, It will be rescued & safeguarded by some of the soldiers of the fighting units of the armed forces, out of personal interest & motivation. ) |
| 1981 | Kurundapasana viharaya of the 150BC in Nedunkerni, is cemented & is converted to a Hindu kovil | Unidentified people built a roof on the stone pillars, and cemented the image house, and planted a trident, using the stone slab of the sacred foot print stone of the Budda to light camphor. The stupa was levelled and cemented. |
| 1983 | July Racial riots - Using brutal force, & handicapped by the traitors within, the Govt fails to understand & handle the Tamil militancy effectively. They keep people in the dark about the real nature of the Tamil racist terrorism. This leave room for the rumours to spread. The anger & frustration, against both the Govt & Tamil extremism, reach it's boiling point | A foolish, and a clueless Govt keep people in the dark about the real nature of the Tamil racist rebellion in the North & the East. This leave room for the rumours to spread. The Govt itself is unable to understand & estimate what was going on. They knew either to apply the brutal force or, to simply sit on the problem, waiting for the next militant move. The Government is handicapped by the traitors within, who neutralise any "effective" counter-terrorist activity. The anger & frustration, against both the Govt & Tamil extremism, reach it's boiling point when the army's night moble patrol is cleverly ambushed in Jaffna. The ensuing riots cost 311 Tamil lives and 160 Sinhala lives, including the last Sinhalese undergraduate in Jaffna university, whose stomach was ripped open and intestines pulled out. LTTE take maximum benefit with so many recruits joining in after the riots. For the next decades, the Eelamists will be able to attract international sympathy or support, claiming over 3000 Tamils were masacred in the south. |
| 2001 | Muslim-Sinhala riots in Mawanella - A case between Thugs & Muslim traders, is turned into a racial riot following extremist Muslims humiliating the Buddhists. (They attacked the Buddhist statue with swords and rods & dragged it along the road with a rope around it's neck - Then over 60 Muslim shops went up in flames ) | on 30th April, a Muslim trader assaulted 3 Sinhala youths who asked for the balance money after buying 3 cigerettes. They complained to Priyantha, a Sinhalese youth in the town who came & assaulted the Muslim trader. On the 1st of May, as complained by the trader, Police arrested only the Sinhalese. The following day, some Muslim youths closed Mawanella Muslim school and with the elder students, set fire to the police jeep of the Mawanella OIC, and in the worst case, attacked the Buddhist statue with swords and rods & dragged it along the road with a rope around it's neck. This act flared up an angry Sinhalese reaction, which was up to this time, only a case between Muslims & thugs. All this was covered up for the fear of more riots. On 4th may, Muslims coming out of Friday mosques, attacked Maradana police station, SInhala shops. It spread to Aampara, Kantalai, & Mutur. |
| Dedicated to All young men and their families who lost their future irrecoverably and hopelessly while trying to defend our heritage, freedom, justice and fairness for ALL. Please do learn the lessons from the history. Otherwise all these sacrifices will be a waste. Also please ask for good governance, Anti-discrimination and Equal rights laws so that no one gets discriminated or treated unfairly because of race, religion, cast or creed. Then the extremists who cause problems between ethnic and religious groups by seperatism or predatory religious expansion tactics etc. will have no job. Also, always search for the truth, nothing but the truth & then isolate the lies. Never be fooled by enemy propaganda. | ||
Part 3 - Under the Portuguese Rule